yoonaani bhaasha

yoonaani
Εaaλaaλaaηaaνaaιaaκaaά Ellīaniká
uchchaaran	[eliniˈaaka]
boli jaati hai	yoonaan saaipras i॰ yoo॰[1] alpasankhyak bhaasha ke roop mein albaaniya[2][3] Australia[4] Italy[5] France[6] roos[7] Germany[8] aarmeeniya[9] Turkey[10] sanyukt raajya America[11] Australia[4] romaaniya[9] Ukraine[9]
kul bolne vaale	1.3 karod
bhaasha parivaar	hind-Europeeya yoonaani
bhaasha koot
ISO 639-1	el
ISO 639-2	gre (B)	ell (T)
ISO 639-3	variously: grc – praacheen yoonaani bhaasha ell – aadhunik yoonaani bhaasha pnt – Pontic Greek gmy – Mycenaean Greek gkm – Medieval Greek cpg – Cappadocian Greek yej – Yevanic tsd – Tsakonian Greek
is panne par yooneekod mein a॰adha॰ava॰ (I pi A) chinh ho sakte hain. agar aapke braaujr mein iski suvidha naheen hai, to iske akshar glat pradarshit ho sakte hain. aur jaankaari...

yoonaani ya greek (Εaaλaaλaaηaaνaaιaaκaaά IPA: [eliniˈaaka] ya Εaaλaaλaaηaaνaaιaaκaaή γaaλaaώaaσaaσaaα, IPA: [eliniˈaaci ˈaaɣaalosa]), hind-Europeeya (bhaaropeeya) bhaasha parivaar ki svatantr shaakha hai, jo greek (yoonaani) logon dvaara boli jaati hai. dakshin baalkan se nikli is bhaasha ka anya bhaaropeeya bhaasha ki tulana mein sabse lamba itihaas hai, jo lekhan itihaas ke 34 shataabdiyon mein faila hua hai. apne praacheen roop mein yeh praacheen yoonaani saahitya aur isaaiyon ke baaibal ke new testaameint ki bhaasha hai. aadhunik svaroop mein yeh yoonaan aur saaipras ki aadhikaarik bhaasha hai aur kareeban 2 karod logon dvaara boli jaati hai. lekhan mein yoonaani aksharon ka upayog kiya jaata hai.

yoonaani bhaasha ke do khaas matlab ho sakte hain :

• praacheen yoonaani bhaasha, jise ek shaastreeya bhaasha maana jaata hai.
• aadhunik yoonaani bhaasha, jo yoonaan ki raajabhaasha hai.

sabse puraani greek "miseniyn greek" (Mycenaean Greek) thi jise liniyr bi (Linear B) lipi mein likhte the. isi tarah ka doosari pranaali bhi thi jise "kipriaat silaibari" (Cypriot syllabary) kehte hain.

lagbhag naunvi shati isa poorv se greek bhaasha ko greek-alfaabet ke dvaara likha jaata hai. puraani greek mein keval bade akshar (upper-case letters) hi the. chhote aksharon ka vikaas to madhya kaal mein hua jab syaahi ke upayog se teji se kaagaj par likhne ki jaroorat aayi.

aadhunik greek varnamaala mein 24 varn hain. sabhi varnon ke bade roop tatha chhote roop hain. "sigma" ke do chhote-roop prachalan mein hain.

yoonaan (grees) ko ham bina kisi atishyokti ke anekaarth mein Europeeya saahitya, darshan tatha sanskruti ki janani kah sakte hain. greek log atyant chatur, medhaavi tatha saahasi the aur unke charitra mein shaareerik shaurya ke saath bauddhik saahas ka anupam sanmishran tha. unka saahitya prachur tatha sarvaangeen tha aur yadyapi usaka bahut sa bhaag kaalakavalit ho chuka hai aur ek tarah se usaka bhagnaavashesh hi upalabdh hai, tathaapi surakshit ansh hi uske gaurav ka sabal saakshi hai. greek saahitya par videshi prabhaavon ki chhaap naheen hai; vah greek jaati ke vaastavik gunon tatha trutiyon ka pratibinb hai. raashtra tatha saahitya ke utthaan patan ka itihaas ek hi hai aur donon ka sambandh atoot hai. greek bhaasha ka mool srot, vah praacheen bhaasha hai jo maanav jaati ki sabhi mukhya bhaashaaon ka udgam maani jaati hai aur jisko bhaashaavishaaradon ne "indo-jarmanik" naam diya hai. kaalaantar mein yeh bhaasha yoonaan tatha niktavarti Asia maainar mein anek praadeshik bhaashaaon mein vibhkt ho gayi, jinmein saahitya ki drushti se chaar ke naam vishesh ullekhaneeya hain- dorik, aivolik, aayonik, tatha aitik. greek saahitya ke nirmaan mein in chaar praadeshik bhaashaaon ka gauravapoorn yog raha hai.

greek kaavyasaahitya ka aarambh homar ke mahaakaavya- "iliyd" tatha "odaisi" se hota hai aur unako apne saahitya ka vaalmeeki kehna anuchit naheen hoga. antar keval itna hi hai ki homar greek kaavya ke janmadaata naheen the kyonki unke pehle bhi ek lokapriya kaavya parampara thi, jisse ve prabhaavit hue aur jiske bikhre hue tatvon ko ekatr aakalit kar unhonne apne mahaakaavyon ka nirmaan kiya. vidvaanon ka mat hai ki homar ke mahaakaavyon ka dheere-dheere vikaas hua aur unke nirmaan mein kai vyaktiyon ka haath raha hai. homar ki bhaasha "mishrit aayoniyaak" hai aur chhand vishesh heksaameetar hai. homar ka janm anumaanat: Asia maainar ke ismarna naamak sthaan par isa ke lagbhag 900 varsh poorv hua tha. panratu unki jeevanagaatha andhakaar mein hai. unke mahaakaavya veeraras poorn hain aur unke paatr devopam hain. devata bhi maanavochit gunon tatha manovikaaron se yukt hain, yadyapi unki shakti tatha sundarata alaukik hai. maanavajeevan ka utthaan patan niyti ke sanket par nirbhar hai yadyapi devagan bhi manushya ke sukh du:kh, jaya tatha paraajaya ke nirnaayak hain aur kuchh devata ko prasann karne ke liye veerashiromani tatha shaktishaali shaasak (agaamemnan) bhi apni kanya ka balidaan kar dene ke liye saharsh taiyaar ho sakta hai. homar ke mahaakaavyon ne samast greek saahitya ko prabhaavit kiya kyonki prashikshit prachaarakon ki toli yoonaan ke vibhinn bhaagon mein ghoom ghoomkar janta ke saamane unka paath karti thi. aise kathaavaachakon ka raipsodist kehte the jo ki haath mein laares vruksh ki chhadi lekar kavitaapaath karte the aur mukhya sthalon par abhinay bhi karte the.

homar ke prabhaav ke sabse sabal saakshi hesiyd hain jo voyatiya ke naagrik the aur jinka prasiddh kaavya "kaarya or din" homar ki shaili mein likha gaya hai. yadyapi unka drushtikon vaiyaktik hai aur unki kavita upadeshaatmak. ismein unhonne apne aalasi bhaai ko parishram tatha krushi ki upaadeyata ki shiksha di hai aur raajaneetik kshetr mein nyaaya ka sabal samarthan kiya hai. unka doosra kaavyagranth "thiyogri" ke naam se prasiddh hai jiske mukhya vishay hain srushti ka aarambh tatha devataaon ki vibhinn peedhiyon ka itihaas. homar tatha hesiyd greek pauraanik saahitya ke pariposhak maane jaate hain aur unke granthon se yeh spasht hai ki yoonaani vichaar bahudevatvavaad se ek devaadhikdev ki kalpana ki or agrasar ho chala tha.

isa poorv ki aathaveen shataabdi yoonaan ke itihaas mein raajaneetik parivartan ka yug maani jaati hai, jismein raajasatta ka hraas aur lokatantr ka udaya ho raha tha. yoonaaniyon ke liye yeh gahan chintan ka samay tha jiska prabhaav kaavya saahitya mein pratibinbit hai. inheen paristhitiyon mein ek nae kaavyaroop ka udbhav hua jisko "eliji" naam diya gaya. aajkal "eliji" mein ve kavitaaeain abhihit ki jaati hain jo mrutaatmaaon ke shok se sambandhit ho athva jinmein jeevan ki kshanabhangurata athva ateet vaibhav ki nashvarata par bhaavapoorn prakaash daala gaya ho. parantu praacheen grees mein iske atirikt bhi anya saamayik vishyon ka eleji mein samaavesh hota tha, aisi kavitaaon mein kavi ke vyaktigat bhaav utsav ke avsaron par jaise yuddh, prem, raajaneeti tatha daarshanik upadesh shrotaaon ke samaksh baaainsuri ke laya ke saath gaakar sunaae jaate the. in kaviyon ki shaili mahaakaavyon se prabhaavit hote hue bhi unase bhinn thi. homar ke shatpadeeya padya ki inmein panchapadeeya kar diya gaya tha aur aisi panktiyon ka gunfan vividh roop ke chhandon mein hota tha. isi se milti julati aaiyavik (panchapadeeya) kavitaaeain thi jinmein vyangya ka gahra put hota tha. is kaavyadhaara mein ullekhaneeya naam aarkeelokas, solan, thiyognaaj tatha simoneedij hain.

aatmaabhivyanjan ka svatantr tatha shuddh roop geetikaavyon mein paaya jaata hai. praacheen grees mein aisi kavitaaeain veena ke saath gaai jaati theen. shuddh geetikaavya yoonaan mein "iyoliyn" bhaasha ki den thi aur iska mukhya kendra "lesbaaj" tha jahaaain isa poorv saataveen shataabdi mein kaafi raajaneetik tanaav tatha sangharsh chala tha. saarvajanik jeevan ke is pahaloo ki jhalak aalkeeyas ke geeton mein milti hai. parantu is kshetr ki mukhya naayika hain saafi, jinke geetikaavya pragaadh premabhaav se otaprot hain. inki kavitaaeain sakhiyon ko bheje premapatron ki hain. bhaasha, bhaav tatha sangeet ka aisa sukhad samanvaya anyatr durlabh hai. swayam afalaatoon ka kavihrudaya usaki yaad mein ga utha tha- saafi ki praaya: saari rachanaaeain khandit hain. adhiktar ye mistr ki baalukaabhoomi se praapt hui.

deeriyaai greekon ne isa poorv 12veen shati ke pashchaat ek aise geetikaavya ko viksit kiya jiska mahatva saarvajanik tha aur jo prashikshit koras roop mein desh tatha raashtra athva nagar ke puneet vijyatyohaaron aur dhaarmik avsaron par gaae jaate the. inmein prasiddh "koras od" hain, jahaaain chhandon ki jatilta, shaili ka oj tatha bhaavon ki garima sundar triveni ka sanchaaran karti hain. is kshetr mein sarvaprasiddh naam pindaar ka hai jinke prabhaavashaali tatha klisht parantu asaadhaaran shabdavinyaas se alankrut "aad" aaj bhi sajeev hain. inheen ke saath simonidij ka naam bhi liya jaata hai, jinki kavitaaon mein raashtreeya ekta tatha deshaprem ka gahra put hai aur bhaasha tatha shaili kalaatmak hote hue bhi apekshaakrut saral tatha bodhagamya hain.

du:khaant tatha sukhaant naatak

greek saahitya ka charamotkarsh naatakon mein paaya jaata hai jinka kendra Athens tha aur mukhya bhaasha "aitik" thi. greek naatak saarvajaneen jeevan se sambandhit rahe aur unamein mukhya bhaavana tatha prerana dhaarmik thi. greek du:khaant ka udbhav sura ke devata diyoniss ke sammaan mein aayojit keertanon tatha aamodon se hua jismein pujaari bakare ka chehara lagaae masti se gaate hue ghoomate the. in geeton ko "dithaaraiv" kehte the. isi ne kaalaantar mein naatak ka roop dhaaran kiya jab dharmik koras do bhaagon mein vibhkt ho gaya- ek or devata ka doot aur doosari or unke pujaari. yahi doot naatak ka pratham paatr maana jaata hai. isaapoorv paaainchaveen shataabdi ke aarambh tak greek naatak ka roop sugathit ho chuka tha aur du:khaant naatak ke teen mukhya stambh iskils, saafokleej tatha yuropideej isi kaal mein (E.poo. chaturth shataabdi) isko viksit karne ke liye prayatnasheel hue. iskils greek du:khaant naatak ke pita maane jaate hain. yeh sainik kavi the aur inke naatakon mein ojasvi shaili ke saath hi kalpana ki ooainchi udaan tatha pragaadh deshaprem aur atoot dharmik vishvaas paae jaate hain. pradhaanata kaavyapaksh ki hai aur naatakeeya tatv gaun hai. aristeej tatha preemethyooj sambandhi inke naatak vishesh prasiddh hain. greek du:khaant ke vikaas mein keindreeya sthaan iskils ke safal pratidvandvi seefokleej ka hai, jinhonne teesare paatr ka samaavesh kar naatakeeya tatvon, visheshakar samvaad ka daayara vistrut kiya. inke naatakon mein maanav tatha alaukik tatvon ka kalaatmak saamanjasya hai aur inke paatr, jaise idips aur aiteegon, asaadhaaran vyaktitv ke hote hue bhi, maanavochit visheshataaon se paripoorn hai. vaataavaran uchch vichaaron se prerit hai. yooreepideej ke naatakon mein praacheen maanyataaon ka hraas tatha aadhunik drushtikon ka udaya spashtat: ankit hai. dhaarmik shraddha ke sthaan par naastikta, aadarshavaad ke sthaan par yathaarthavaad, asaadhaaran paatron ke sthaan par saadhaaran paatr paathakon ke samaksh aate hain. ve karunaras ke poshak the aur unke sanvaadon mein jatil tarkon ka samaavesh hai.

aisa maana jaata hai ki is ardhashataabdi ke alpakaal mein iskils ne 70, sofokleej ne 113 aur yooraapideej ne 92 naatakon ka nirmaan kiya jinmein adhikaansh lupt ho gaye.

greek sukhaant naatak ka udaya bhi diyoniss devata ki pooja se hi hua, parantu is pooja ka aayojan jaade mein na hokar vasant mein hota tha aur pujaariyon ka juloos vaise hi uddandata tatha ashleelta ka pradarshan karta tha jaisa Bhaarat mein holi ke avsar par praaya: dekhne mein aata hai. sukhaant naatak ke vikaas mein deeriyaai logon ka mahatvapoorn yog raha, parantu iska utkarsh to etika se hi sambandhit hai kyonki praacheen greek sukhaant naatak ke prabal pravartak aristofaanij ka kaaryakshetr to Athens hi raha. is nirbheek naatakakaar ne isa poorv 427 se lekar 40 varsho tak aise sukhaant naatakon ka srujan kiya jinmein svachhand kalpana ki udaan ke saath saath kaavya ki madhurata, nireekshan ki teevrata tatha vyangon ki vidgdhata ka aashcharyajanak sammishran hain. in sukhaantaan mein, "pakshi", "bhek", "megh", "raatein" aur praaya: vyaktiyon par prahaar kiya gaya hai. inmein se anek mein sukaraat aur uske shishyon ke raajaneetik tatha nyaaya sambandhi kathopakathanon, perikleej ki raajaneeti tatha usaki rakhail aspaajiya ke teevr upaahaas prastut hain. kai sthaanon par haasyaras ashleelta se pankil ho utha hai. praacheen sukhaant naatakon ka parimaarjan yoonaan ke madhyakaaleen sukhaant naatakon mein hua, jinmein barbarata tatha vyaktigat vyangon ke sthaan par shisht prahasan ko protsaahan mila jiske paatr praaya: vibhinn maanav vargi tatha trutiyon ke prateek hote the. is naveen evam sukhaant naatak ke sajeev udaaharan "plaatas" tatha "tereins" ke roman naatakon mein milte hain. minaindar iske sarvaprasiddh yoonaani pravartak the. in sukhaant naatakon mein nimnakoti ka vaasanaatatv pradhaan hai.

greek gadya ka aavirbhaav sansaar ke anya saahityon ki hi bhaaainti padya ke peechhe hua. isa poorv paaainchaveen shataabdi ke madhya mein greek gadya tatha padya ke kshetr ek doosare se alag hone lage aur bahut se vichaaron ka abhivyanjan gadya ke maadhyam se hone laga. kalaatmak gadya ke nirmaan mein prasiddh greek itihaasakaaron, herodotas, thyusideeidij tatha jenofon greek daarshanikon jaise heraakleetas, afalaatoon aur arastoo tatha greek vaagmiyon tatha vaakshaastriyon (retorishiynon) ka kaafi haath raha. shaastriyon mein mukhya sthaan sofistaan ka tha jo Athens mein vaktaaon ka prashikshan karte the aur apne kaavya tatha sangeetamaya gadyabhaashanon se asatya ke oopar satya ka mulamma lagaakar logon ko mugdh kiya karte the. inke anishtakaari prabhaavon ka virodh afalaatoon ne muktakanth se kiya aur unke pashchaat arastoo ne is shaastr ka vaigyaanik vivechan kar gadya ki vibhinn shailiyon par aisa prakaash daala ki unka vivechan aaj tak pramaanik maana jaata hai. afalaatoon tatha unke shishya arastoo daarshanik hone ke saath hi saahityasameekshak bhi the. donon ki pratibha bahumukhi thi. parantu pleto ki gadyashaili saahityik hai aur usamein yathaasthaan kavitv ka sundar put hai arastoo ka gadya neeras vaigyaanik ka hai jismein kalaapaksh gaun hai vichaarapaksh mukhya. Europe ka sameeksha saahitya shataabdiyon tak arastoo ke kaavyashaastr (poitiks) ko baaibil ke samaan hi puneet samajhta raha. arastoo ke shishya thiyofrestras apni gadyarachana "kairektars" ke liye prasiddh hain.

isa poorv truteeya shataabdi ke aarambh mein greek saahitya avsaan ki or agrasar hone laga. sikandar ke pita Phillip dviteeya ne yoonaani svatantr raashtron ki satta par kuthaaraaghaat kiya aur sikandar ne swayam apni vishvavijya ki yugaantarakaari yaatra mein yoonaani saahitya tatha sanskruti ko saarvabhaum banaane ka sakriya prayaas kiya. is prakaar yoonaan ke baahar kuchh aise keindron ka nirmaan hua jahaaain greek bhaasha aur saahitya ka adhyayan nae dhang se kintu prachur utsaah ke saath hone laga. in keindron mein pramukh mishr ki rajdhani alekjaandriya thi jahaaain par yoonaani saahitya, darshan tatha vigyaan ke hastalikhit granthon ka ek vishaal pustakaalaya ban gaya jiska vinaash isa poorv pehli sadi mein general aantoni ke samay hua. is nae kendra ke lekhak tatha vidvaan yoonaan ke lekhakon se prabhaavit tatha anupraanit the aur visheshakar vigyaan kshetr mein unka kaarya vishesh saraahaneeya hua. parantu saahitya kshetr mein srujanaatmak pratibha ka sthaan aalochna tatha vyaakaran aur vyaakhya saahitya ne le liya. falasvaroop puraane saahitya ki vyaakhya ke saath saath bahut se granthon ki visheshataaon ki raksha sambhav hui. is kaal ki kavita mein naveen tatvon ka vikaas spasht hai parantu use saath hi yeh bhi prakat hai ki kavita ka daayara sankuchit ho gaya aur kavita janta ke liye naheen visheshagyon ke liye likhi jaane lagi. shaili krutrim tatha alankaaron se bojhil ho gayi aur shabdachayan mein bhi paanditya ka aadanbar khada hua. kaviyon mein mukhya naam hai thiyokretas ka jo dehaati jeevan sambandhi gochaaran saahitya (paistoral) ke strashta maane jaate hain aur epoloniys tatha kaaleemaiks ka vishesh sambandh kramash: mahaakaavya aur futakar geetakaavya, jaise "eliji" aur "evigraamon" se hai.

isa poorv dviteeya shataabdi ke aaspaas yoonaan desh par roman aakramanakaariyon ka aadhiptya ho gaya, parantu unhonne greek saahitya tatha darshan ki mahatta sveekaar kar unase prerit ho apne raashtreeyasaahitya ka utkarsh karne ka nishchaya kiya. yahi kaaran hai ki roman saamraajya ke vividh bhaagon mein yoonaani bhaasha ka prachaar tha aur isi bhaasha ke maadhyam se saahitya ke vibhinn kshetron mein prasiddh granthon ka nirmaan ho raha tha. is saahitya mein mukhya sthaan gadya ka hai jo sameeksha hai. sameekshakon mein sarvashreshth "laanjaainas" hai jiska prasiddh kintu apoorn granth "shaaleen ke vishay mein" praacheen sameeksha saahitya mein afalaatoon tatha arastoo ke granthon ka samakaksh maana jaata hai. is granth mein saahitya ki shaaleenata ka vivechan hai aur udaaharan roop mein yoonaan tatha rom ki saikadon krutiyon ka ullekh hai. sameekshak ka saahitya premapragaadh hai aur gadya shaili mein kaavyachamatkaar tatha ojapoorn shabdavinyaason ki bharamaar hai.

is kaal ke doosare prasiddh tatha prabhaavashaali gadyalekhak plootaark (46-120 E.) hain jo baayatiya ke uchch kul mein paida hue the aur rom mein rahakar kaafi khyaati praapt kar chuke the. kanya ki akaal mrutyu se prerit ho inhonne "kansoleshan" ki rachana ki jo kaalaantar mein lokapriya hui. plootaark prasiddh daarshanik tatha "epolo" ke bhakt the aur unke jeevan ka antim charan saahityaseva tatha devaarchan mein vyateet hua. inke lekhon tatha bhaashanon ka sangrah "moreliya" ke naam se prasiddh hai. plootaark ka sarvashreshth tatha labdhapratishth granth greek tatha romanon ka samaanaantar charit hai jismein inhonne apne is daave ko siddh kiya hai ki pratyek roman ka saamaanaantar udaaharan yoonaani itihaas mein upalabdh hai. yeh rachana sansaar ke prasiddh granthon mein gini jaati hai aur ismein aitihaasik tatv gaun hote hue bhi mahatvapoorn hai, parantu usase adhik mahatvapoorn hai charitrachitran tatha rochak kahaani ki vah kala jisne ise apne kshetr ka amoolya ratn bana diya hai.

isi yug mein greek gadya saahitya ne katipya upanyaason ka srujan kiya jo romance ke naam se prasiddh hain kyonki jeevan ka yathaarth roop prastut karna inka mukhya dhyeya naheen hai aur yathaarthata kalpana tatha atiranjan aur aashcharyajanak ghatnaaon se dabakar mrutapraaya ho gayi hai. in romance krutiyon mein jaise "teer ka epoloniys", daafnees tatha klon ya paastoreliya-prem tatha asaadhaaran ghatanaachakr hi keindrasthal hai. naayak tatha naayika ka premodaya, tatpashchaat unka alagaav aur fir paristhitiyon ki chot se idhar udhar bhatakna, ant mein sanyogavash fir milna aur premasootr mein ekatv praapt karna moolat: yahi in granthon ke mukhya kathaanak ka saar hai.

is yug ki greek kavita mein maulikta tatha sajeevata ka abhaas hai aur adhikaansh kaavyasevi saadhaaran shreni ke hain. parantu loosiyn (120-180) E. ka ullekh is disha mein mahatva ka hoga. greek kaavya mein nae jeevan ka usane sanchaar kiya. loosiyn Syria mein paida hua tha aur greek usaki maatrubhaasha naheen thi parantu usane is bhaasha ka itne prem aur lagan se adhyayan kiya ki yeh usaki maatrubhaasha ho gayi. iski vishesh rujhaan darshan ki or thi jisse prerit hokar usane apne jeevan ke sunahale kaal 40 varsh ki avastha mein Athens ko kuchh samay ke liye apna nivaasasthaan banaaya tha. parantu daarshanikon ki gambheerta usaki svabhaavajanya chanchalata ke viruddh thi jiske falasvaroop usane samakaaleen daarshanik aadanbaron ke khandan mandan mein hi apni lekhani ko sakriya kiya. usaki rachanaaon mein "faaleris" tatha "mrutakon ka daayalaag" vishesh ullekhaneeya hain. daayalaag vyangya chitron se bhara hai aur usamein maanav jaati ke vichitr kaaranaamon par teeka tippani prastut ki gayi hai tatha narak mein avateern mrutaatmaaon ki achhi jeevan jhaaainki milti hai. in sabhi rachanaaon mein dhanikon ke vyavahaar tatha vichron ke prati lekhak ki ghruna tatha kadi aalochna svat: pramaan hai. is tarah loosiyn ki pratibha vyangaatmak katuta se prerit thi aur unka vyangya samakaaleen janajeevan tak hi seemit naheen tha. unhonne praacheen tatha samakaaleen sabhi dharmik aandolanon ki kadi aalochna ki or devataaon ke daayalaags tatha seeriyk devi ke prati jaisi rachanaaon mein devataaon tatha unke chamatkaaron ki bhi kaafi khilli udaai. is tarah loosiyn grees ki puraani pravruti ka hi pratinidhi naheen apitu uske samast saahitya ka pratinidhi tha. lesiyn ke saath hi klaasikl greek bhaasha ka avsaan ho jaata hai aur ek mishrit bhaasha usaka sthaan grahan karna aarambh karti hai kyonki usaki mukhya prerana ka kshetr hi badal jaata hai.

isaai dharm ke saath hi greek bhaasha mein ek nai prerana ka sanchaar hone laga. greek church tatha uske aadheen baahari keindron ke netaaon tatha santon ne isi bhaasha ke maadhyam se dhaarmik tatha aadhyaatmik samasyaaon tatha bhaavanaaon ka vivechan tatha vishleshan karna aarambh kiya. dhaarmik rachanaaon mein kuchh to vyaakhyaatmak aur upadeshaatmak hain, jaise "sant paal ke prasiddh patra" aur kuchh ka sambandh vyavastha tatha sangathan se hai, jaise "first ipsil ov kaleemeint", parantu adhikanaash vyaakhyaatmak hain, jaise "ipsil ov baarnavaas". in rachanaaon mein saahitya tatv gaun hain, parantu alekjaandriya ke prasiddh church-pita klemeint tatha orijen ke gambhir lekh vichaaragarima ke saath hi saath saahityik shaili ke bhi prabhaavashaali udaaharan hain. aitihaasik drushti se sarvaprasiddh granth seejera dvaara likhit "eklejiyaastikl history" hai jo tatkaaleen church itihaas ka praamaanik granth hai.

madhyayugeen isaai lekhakon ne greek bhaasha tatha shaili ke maadhyam se praacheen yoonaani darshan tatha dharm sambandhi mool tatvon ka saamanjasya apne nae tatha pragatisheel dharm se sthaapit karne ka kram aarambh kiya. iske falasvaroop puraani shaili ke bahut se tatvon ka punarjanm hua aur afalaatoon tatha arastoo ke mukhya siddhaanton ko isaai dharmashaastr mein sammaanapoorn sthaan mila. is nai vichaaradhaara ke prabal samarthak "baaijaintiym" ke dhaarmik lekhak the jo greek saahitya tatha darshan se poornataya anupraanit the. isi dhaarmik kendra se un geetakaavyon ko protsaahan mila jo church mein vividh pooja tatha tyohaaron ke avsaron par gaae jaate the aur aaj tak "litrgi" tatha "him" (ktanrthrd) ke naam se prasiddh hain. ye geetakaavya puraani chhandaparanpara ko chhodkar ek nai chhand pranaali ka anusaran karte hain aur inke baahm roopon mein aashcharyajanak bhinnata hai. parantu bhaasha itni lacheeli hai ki bina kisi vishesh prayaas ke un sabhi bhinn roopon ka upayukt saadhan ban jaati hai. in geetakaavyon ka sarvottam vikaas un shrrunkhalaabaddh dhaarmik geeton mein hua jo "kainan" naam se prasiddh hain aur jinke sarvashreshth pravartak damishk ke sant John the. is tarah ki kavitaaeain shataabdiyon tak likhi jaati raheen aur inmein shabd tatha sangeet praaya: sanprukt hain.

iske saath hi ek aur nai saahityadhaara ka aavirbhaav hua jiska sambandh isaai santon ke jeevan tatha chamatkaaron se tha. ismein satya tatha kalpana ka sanmishran hai aur inke lekhak madhyayugeen romaanson ke shaileetatvaan tatha romaanchakaari varnanon ko apnaate hue paathakon ke hrudaya mein saansaarik manoranjan ke sthaan par naitik tatha dhaarmik tatvon ke prati prem tatha aastha utpann karne mein sanlagn prateet hote hain. in lokapriya granthon ka udgam sthaan mistr ke sat aathani ki "jeevanakatha" hai jiske lekhak chauthi shataabdi ke sant athanaasiys maane jaate hain.

aadhunik greek saahitya ke sarvapradhaan ang aise padya, lekh tatha kaavya hain jo sarvasaadhaaran mein prachalit bhaasha mein likhe gaye. vah bhaasha jo klaasikl ke vipreet "demotik greek" ke naam se prasiddh hai. inmein adhikaansh lokageet ki shreni mein aate hain aur lokajeevan ke utaar chadhaav ke pratibinb hain. in geeton ki mukhya prerana laukik hai aur inke padhne se mahaaraani Elizabeth pratham ke svarnayug mein prachalit un geetikaavyon ka smaran ho aata hai jinmein javaani ki umang, prakrutiprem tatha sura sundari mein utkat lipsa ke saath hi madhur peeda bhi hai jo bhautik sukh saundarya ki kshanabhangurata se aavirbhoot hoti hai. is panrapara mein kuchh aise kaavya bhi hain jinka mahatva aitihaasik hai aur udgam-strot tatkaaleen durghatanaaeain; udaaharan ke liye ham un lokageeton ko le sakte hain jo kustuntuniya ke patan par shok tatha uske rakshakon ke saahas tatha shaurya par santosh prakat karte hain. is prachur kaavyasaahitya ke saath lekhakon ka vyaktigat sambandh naheen ke baraabar hai. yeh lokajeevan se poshit haakar samast jaati ke saamoohik vichaaron tatha bhaavanaaon ko pratibinvit karta hai.

iske atirikt aadhunik greek saahitya ka anya prasiddh ang vah hai jispar pashchimi Europe ki chhaap gahari hai. poorv-pashchim kaayah sammiln madhyayugeen dharmayuddhon (kroosedon) ke samay hua jab France, Italy ityaadi deshon ke dharmaveer turkon ke virodh mein poorv ki or agrasar hue. isi ke falasvaroop prem tatha saahasik kaarya se sambandhit un romaanson ka janm hua jo madhyakaaleen French upanyaason se prerit hain aur jinka maadhyam demautik greek hai. 17veen shataabdi mein do jaatiyon ka yeh sanmishran kreet ke prasiddh nagaron mein sarvaadhik saarthak siddh hua jiske falasvaroop ek nae prakaar ke naatak ka aavirbhaav hua jo itaaleeya rangamanch se prerit tha. is saahitya mein sarvaprasiddh naam kornaaros ka hai jo naam se itaaliyn hain parantu bhaasha jinki yoonaani hai. apne "rotokrits" naamak lokapriya upanyaas mein yeh madhyayugeen romance ko aadhunik mod dene mein safal hue hain. kreet mein is nae saahitya ka utkarshakaal keval 50 varsh tak tha kyonki 1669 E. mein kreet ke patan ke saath hi saahitya ka gaurav bhi samaapt ho gaya, yadyapi paravarti greek saahitya par iska kaafi prabhaav pada.

18veen shataabdi ka uttaraardh grees ki raajaneetik jaagruti ka sangharshakaal tha. is jaagrutikaal mein raashtrabhaasha ka prashn bhi vichaaraneeya tha. klaasikl greek, vaijantiym ki vishuddh bhaasha, jo church ki bhaasha thi aur demotik greek, jo lokaprachalit thi- inhon mein se kisi ek ka aadhaar maankar raashtrabhaasha ka nirmaan karna tha. is sangharsh mein kai asafal prayaason ke pashchaat ant mein lokaprachalit bhaasha ki vijay hui aur is vijay ka mukhya shreya aadhunik grees ke sarvashreshth kavi "diyonisiyees seelomons" ki hain, jinhonne yeh siddh kar diya ki bhaasha hi uchch koti ka safal maadhyam ho sakti hai. 20veen shataabdi ke aarambh tak padya tatha gadya isi maadhyam se likhe jaane lage, jisse is bhaasha ka paryaapt vikaas tatha parimaarjan hua. is shataabdi ke madhya tatha uttaraardh mein kaavya tatha upanyaas greek saahitya ke vishisht ang rahe hain. is tarah se greek saahitya tatha bhaasha ka itihaas isa ke poorv ek sahastr varsh se aaj tak lagbhag akshunn hi raha hai, yadyapi iske praacheen gaurav ki punaraavrutti baad ke yugon mein kabhi bhi sambhav naheen hui.

saamaanya

• Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
• The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
• The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education.
• The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.

bhaasha shikshan

• Greek dictionary, tutorial and hangman program with texteditor, this shareware program is aimed at learning New Testament Greek.
• Greek spell checker
• (yoonaani) komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language.
• New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament
• a keyboard for typing greek characters for firefox
• Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece (page in Greek)

shabdakosh

• Greek-English/English-Greek dictionary, (yoonaani)
• Translatum - The Greek translation Vortal (Dictionaries and terminology forum)
• Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexica (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexica in Print.
• Online Greek-English and English-Greek dictionary (Modern Greek)
• Online Greek <-> English Dictionary with gender and type of words
• The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern).
• Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary, scanned images from S.C. Woodhouse's 1910 dictionary.
• English to Greek Dictionary, English to Greek Dictionary.

saahitya

• Books in Greek, an extended list of searchable bibliographic information.
• (yoonaani) Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization set in order to promote Modern Greek Literature and Culture.
• Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books.
• The Treasure of the Greek Language, a large collection of e-books from all stages of Greek language.