vaadya yantr

ek vaadya yantr ka nirmaan ya prayog, sangeet ki dhvani nikaalne ke prayojan ke liye hota hai. siddhaant roop se, koi bhi vastu jo dhvani paida karti hai, vaadya yantr kahi ja sakti hai. vaadyayantr ka itihaas, maanav sanskruti ki shuruaat se praarambh hota hai. vaadyayantr ka shaikshanik adhyayan, angreji mein orgenoloji kahalaata hai.

sangeet vaadya ke roop mein ek vivaadit yantr ki tithi aur utpatti 67,000 saal puraani maani jaati hai; kalaakrutiyaan jinhein saamaanyat: praarambhik baansuri maana jaata hai kareeb 37,000 saal puraani hain. haalaanki, adhikaansh itihaasakaaron ka maanana hai ki vaadya yantr ke aavishkaar ka ek vishisht samay nirdhaarit kar paana, paribhaasha ke vyaktiprak hone ke kaaran asambhav hai.

vaadyayantr, duniya ke kai aabaadi vaale kshetron mein svatantr roop se viksit hue. haalaanki, sabhyataaon ke beech sampark ke kaaran adhikaansh yantron ka prasaar aur roopaantaran unke utpatti sthaanon se door-door tak hua. madhya yug tak, mesopotaamiya ke yantron ko malaya dveepasamooh par dekha ja sakta tha aur uttari Africa ke yantron ko Europe mein bajaaya ja raha tha. America mein vikaas dheemi gati se hue, lekin uttar, madhya aur dakshin America ki sanskrutiyon ne vaadyayantron ko saajha kiya.

anukram

puraatatv

is baat ki khoj mein ki pratham vaadyayantr ka vikaas kisne aur kab kiya, shodhakartaaon ne duniya ke kai bhaagon mein sangeet vaadyayantr ke vibhinn puraataatvik saakshya ki khoj ki. kuchh khojein 67,000 saal tak puraani hain, lekin vaadyayantr ke roop mein unki haisiyat par aksar vivaad raha hai. sarvasammati se, kareeb 37,000 saal puraane ya uske baad ki kalaakrutiyon ke baare mein faisala diya gaya. sirf vaisi kalaakrutiyaan bachi hui hain jo tikaaoo saamagri ya tikaaoo tareekon ka upayog karke banaai gayi hain. is prakaar, khoje gaye namoonon ko avivaadit tareeke se sabse praarambhik vaadyayantr naheen maana ja sakta.[1]

chitr:Image-Divje01.jpg
Bob fink dvaara vivaadit baansuri ka aarekhan

July 1995 mein, sloveniyaai puraatatvavid ivaan turk ne sloveniya ke uttar pashchimi kshetr mein ek nakkaasheedaar haddi ki khoj ki. is vastu mein jise divje beb floot naam diya gaya hai, chaar chhed hain jiska istemaal, Canada ke sangeet vaigyaanik Bob fink maanate hain ki, ek daayatonik skel ke chaar noton ko bajaane ke liye kiya jaata raha hoga. shodhakartaaon ne is baansuri ki umr ka anumaan 43,400 aur 67,000 ke beech hone ka lagaaya hai, jisse yeh sabse praacheen aur niyendarathal sanskruti se juda ekamaatr vaadyayantr ban jaata hai.[2] haalaanki, kuchh puraatatvavidon ne is baansuri ke, vaadyayantr hone ki haisiyat par savaal uthaaya hai.[3] jarman puraatatvavidon ne svaabiyn aalb mein 30,000 se 37,000 saal puraani maimath ki haddi aur hans ki haddi ki baansuri ko khoja hai. in baansuriyon ko oopari pailiyolithik kaal mein banaaya gaya tha aur ise apekshaakrut adhik aam roop se praacheenatam gyaat vaadyayantr ke roop mein sveekaar kiya jaata hai.[4]

vaadyayantr ke puraataatvik saakshya, ur (ur ka laaiar dekhein) ke sumeraai shahar mein shaahi kabristaan ki khudaai mein paae gaye. in upakaranon mein nau laaiar, do been ek silver double floot, sistra aur jhaanjh shaamil hain. ur mein khoj gaye, reed ke sadrush aavaaj vaale silver pipe ke aadhunik baigapaaip ke poorvavarti hone ki sambhaavana thi.[5] in belanaakaar pipe mein teen tarafa chhed hain jo vaadak ko poorn ton skel utpann karne ki anumati dete hain.[6] 1920 ke dashak mein lionaard vooli dvaara ki gayi in khudaaiyon mein yantron ke nasht na hone vaale tukade aur nasht ho chuke hisson ki khaali jagah mili hai jinhein ise dubaara banaane ke liye ek saath istemaal kiya gaya hoga.[7] ye yantr jis kabr se sambandhit the unki kaarban deting 2600 aur 2500 BCE ke beech ki gayi, yeh saboot pradaan karte hue ki is samay tak in yantron ka istemaal sumeriya mein kiya ja raha tha.[8]

mesopotaamiya mein nippur se praapt, 2000 BCE puraane keelaakaar tablet par laaiar ke taaron ke naam ingit hain aur yeh svaralipi ka sabse praacheen gyaat udaaharan hai.[9]

itihaas

adhik jaankaari: [[History of music in the biblical period]]

vidvaan, is baat par sahamat hain ki vibhinn sanskrutiyon mein vaadyayantr ke sateek kaalakram nirdhaaran karne ka koi poorn vishvasaneeya tareeka naheen hai. unki jatilta ke aadhaar par vaadyayantron ki tulana aur unka aayojan bhraamak hai, choonki vaadyayantron mein hone vaale vikaas ne kabhi-kabhi jatilta ko kam kiya hai. udaaharan ke liye, praarambhik slit drum ke nirmaan mein vishaal pedon ki kataai aur unhein khokhala karna shaamil tha; baad mein slit drum ka nirmaan baans ke tane ko kholkar kiya jaane laga, jo kaafi aasaan tha.[10] isi prakaar kaareegari ke aadhaar par vaadyayantr ke vikaas ko aayojit karna bhraamak hai, choonki sabhi sanskrutiyaan vibhinn staron par vikaas karti hain aur unhein alag-alag saamagriyaan upalabdh hoti hain. udaaharan ke liye, ek hi samay mein maujood do sanskrutiyaan, jinke gathan, sanskruti aur hastakala mein bhinnata thi, unke dvaara banaae gaye vaadyayantr ki tulana karne ka prayaas karne vaale maanavavijnyaaani yeh nirdhaarit naheen kar sakte ki kaun se vaadyayantr adhik "aadim" hain.[11] bhoogol ke aadhaar par yantron ko kramit karna bhi aanshik roop se avishvasaneeya hai, kyonki koi yeh nirdhaarit naheen kar sakta ki kab aur kaise sanskrutiyon ne ek doosare se sampark kiya aur aapas mein gyaan saajha kiya.

jarman sangeet vaigyaanik, kart saaks ne, jo aadhunik samay ke sabse pramukh sangeet vaigyaanik aur maanavajaati vigyaani hain[12], sujhaaya hai ki lagbhag 1400 tak ka ek bhaugolik kaalakram behtar hai, kyonki yeh seemit roop se vyaktiprak hai.[13] 1400 ke oopar, samayaavadhi ke aadhaar par vaadyayantr ke samagr vikaas ko liya ja sakta hai.[13]

vaadyayantron ke vikaas ke kram ankan ka vigyaan, puraataatvik shilp, kalaatmak ankan aur saahityik sandarbhon par nirbhar hai. choonki kisi ek anusandhaan maarg mein aankade adhoore ho sakte hain, sabhi teen maarg ek behtar aitihaasik tasveer upalabdh karaate hain.[1]

aadim aur praagaitihaasik

do ejtek slit drum, jinhein teponaajtali kaha jaata hai."H" slit charitra ko agrabhoomi mein drum ke sheersh par dekha ja sakta hai

19veen shataabdi tak, likhit Europeeya sangeet itihaas, in pauraanikke vivranon ke saath shuroo hota hai ki vaadyayantron ka aavishkaar kaise kiya gaya. aise vivranon mein shaamil hai jubaal, kain ke vanshaj aur "un sabhi ka pita jo haarp aur organ sanbhaalate hain", paan, painapaaip ke aavishkaarak aur marakari, kaha jaata hai jisne kachhue ke sookhe khol se pehla laaiar banaaya tha. aadhunik itihaas ne aisi pauraanik kathaaon ko maanavashaastreeya atkalon ke dvaara pratisthaapit kiya hai aur kabhi-kabhi ise puraataatvik saakshya dvaara pusht bhi kiya hai. vidvaanon ka maanana hai ki vaadyayantr ka koi nishchit "aavishkaar" naheen kiya gaya, choonki "vaadya yantr" shabd ki paribhaasha vidvaan aur bhaavi-aavishkaarak, donon ke liye poori tarah se vyaktiprak hai. udaaharan ke liye, ek homo habeelis ka apne shareer par tamaache lagaana, bina uske iraade ki paravaah kiye ek nirmaanaadheen vaadyayantr ho sakta hai.[14]

maanav shareer se pare jin upakaranon ko pratham vaadyayantr maana jaata hai, ve hain jhunajhune, staimpar aur vibhinn prakaar ke drum.[15] ye aaranbhik yantr, bhaavanaatmak harkaton, jaise nrutya mein dhvani jodne ke maanav ke sanchaalan aaveg ke kaaran viksit hue.[16] aakhirkaar, kuchh sanskrutiyon ne apne vaadyayantron ke liye anushthaan kaaryakramon ko joda. un sanskrutiyon ne adhik jatil parakashan upakaranon aur anya upakaranon ka vikaas kiya, jaise ribn reed, baansuri aur turahiyaan. inmein se kuchh lebal mein, aadhunik samay mein prayog kiye jaane vaale sanketaarthon se kaafi bhinn sanketaarth hain; aaranbhik baansuriyon aur turahiyon ko aisa lebal unki mool kaaryapranaali aur upayog ke liye lagaaya jaata tha na ki aadhunik yantron se kisi samaanata ke liye.[17] praarambhik sanskrutiyaan jinke liye drum ne karmakaandon aur yahaan tak ki pavitra mahatva ko viksit kiya, ve hain sudoor poorvi roos ke chukachi log, melaanisiya ke deshi log aur Africa ki kai sanskrutiyaan. vaastav mein, pratyek afreeki sanskruti mein, drum vyaapak roop se maujood the.[18] ek poorvi afreeki janajaati, vahinda ise itna pavitra maanati thi ki sultaan ke alaava ise dekhne vaale kisi anya vyakti ke liye yeh ghaatak hota tha.[19]

antat: insaanon ne dhun utpann karne ke liye vaadyayantron ka upayog karne ki avadhaarana ka vikaas kiya. vaadyayantr ke vikaas mein is samay tak, raag, sirf gaayan mein hi aam tha. bhaasha mein doharaav ki prakriya ke samaan hi, vaadyayantr bajaane vaalon ne pehle doharaav viksit kiya aur fir vaadyavrundkaran. dhun ke ek praarambhik roop ko, do alag aakaaron ke tube ko thok kar utpann kiya gaya - ek tube se "spasht" dhvani utpann hoti thi aur doosare se ek "gahari" dhvani niklati thi. aise yantron ke jode mein bularorar, slit drum, seep turahiyaan aur khaal drum bhi shaamil hai. jo sanskrutiyaan in yantron ke jodon ka prayog karti theen, unhonne unke saath ling ko jod diya; "pita" bada ya adhik oorjaavaan yantr tha, jabki "maan" chhota ya mand yantr hota tha. sangeet ke vaadyayantr hajaaron varshon tak is roop mein bane rahe, jab tak ki praarambhik jaayalofon ke roop mein, sur ke teen ya usase adhik paitarn ka vikaas naheen hua.[20] jaayalofon ki utpatti, dakshin poorv Asia ki mukhya bhoomi aur dveepasamooh mein hui aur vahaan se yeh Africa, America aur Europe tak faila.[21] jaayalofon ke saath-saath, jo saadhaaran teen "leg baar" ke set se lekar samaanaantar baar ke dhyaanapoorvak tyoon kiye gaye set tak ke hote the, vibhinn sanskrutiyon ne vaadyayantron ka vikaas kiya jaise bhoomi veena, bhoomi jithr, sangeet dhanush aur jau haarp.[22]

puraatanata

sangeet vaadyayantron ke chitr, mesopotaamiya ki kalaakrutiyon mein 2800 isa poorv ya aur pehle dikhaai dene shuroo ho jaate hain. 2000 E.poo. ke aaspaas shuru hokar, sumer aur bebeelon ki sanskrutiyon ne, shram aur viksit hoti varg vyavastha ke kaaran vaadyayantron ke do alag vargon ki ruparekha banaani shuroo ki. lokapriya vaadyayantr, saral aur kisi ke bhi dvaara bajaae jaane yogya, bhinn roop se peshevar yantron se viksit hue jinke vikaas ne kaushal aur prabhaav par dhyaan keindrit kiya.[23] is vikaas ke baavajood, mesopotaamiya mein bahut kam vaadyayantr baraamad kiye gaye hain. mesopotaamiya mein vaadyayantron ke praarambhik itihaas ko fir se sangathit karne ke liye vidvaanon ko sumeriyn ya akaadiyn mein likhi kalaakrutiyon aur keelaakaar lekh par bharosa karna chaahiye. yahaan tak ki in upakaranon ko naam dene ki prakriya bhi chunauteepoorn hai choonki vibhinn upakaranon aur unhein paribhaashit karne ke liye prayukt shabdon ke beech spasht bhed naheen hai.[24] haalaanki, sumeriyaai aur bebeelon ke kalaakaaron ne mukhya roop se samaarohik vaadyayantron ka ankan kiya hai, itihaasakaar, chh: idiyofon ke beech bhed karne mein saksham hue hain jo aaranbhik mesopotaamiya mein istemaal kiye jaate the: kanakashan club, klaipar, sistra, ghantiyaan, simbal aur jhunajhuna.[25] sistra ko amenahotep III ki mahaan nakkaashi mein bade spasht rup se darshaaya gaya hai,[26] aur inmein vishesh roochi is vajah se hai kyonki isi tarah ke dijaainon ko sudoor kshetron mein paaya gaya hai, jaise taibilisi, jaurjiya aur ameriki mool nivaasi yaakui janajaati ke beech.[27] mesopotaamiya ke log kisi bhi anya yantr ke bajaay taar vaale vaadyayantr pasand karte the, jaisa ki mesopotaamiya ki moortiyon, takhtiyon aur muharon mein unke prasaar se siddh hota hai. veena ki asankhya kismon ka chitran kiya gaya hai, saath hi saath laaiar aur lyut bhi hain jo taaravaale aadhunik yantron ke aguaa rahe hain jaise vaayalin.[28]

chitr:Egyptianluteplayers.jpg
lyut vaadak ka chitran karti praacheen misr ki kabr chitrakala, 18vaan raajavansh (c. 1350 E.poo.)

misr ki sanskruti mein 2700 E.poo. se pehle prayog kiye jaane vaale vaadyayantr, mesopotaamiya ke yantron se kaafi milte-julate hain, jisse itihaasakaaron ne yeh nishkarsh nikaala ki sabhyataaen, zaroor ek doosare ke saath sampark mein rahi hongi. saaks is baat ka ullekh karte hain ki misr ke paas aisa koi vaadya naheen tha jo sumeriyn sanskruti ke paas bhi na raha ho.[29] haalaanki, 2700 E.poo. tak aisa prateet hota hai ki saanskrutik sampark kam hone laga; laaiar, jo sumer mein ek pramukh samaarohik vaadyayantr tha, misr mein aur 800 saal tak naheen dikha.[29] klaipar aur kanakashan lakdi, 3000 E.poo. tak ke misr ke guladaston par dikhaai deti hai. is sabhyata ne sistra, urdhvaadhar baansuri, double klairinet, dhanushaakaar aur koneeya veena aur vibhinn dramon ka bhi istemaal kiya.[30] 2700 E.poo. aur 1500 E.poo. ke beech ki avadhi ka kaafi kam itihaas upalabdh hai, choonki misr (aur vaastav mein, bebeelon), yuddh aur vinaash ki ek lambi hinsak avadhi mein pravesh kar gaya. is avadhi mein kasaait ne mesopotaamiya mein bebeelon saamraajya ko nasht kar diya aur hiksos ne misr ke madhya saamraajya ka vinaash kar diya. jab misr ke fairoh ne lagbhag 1500 E.poo. mein dakshin pashchim Asia mein vijay praapt ki to mesopotaamiya ke saath saanskrutik sambandh fir se majboot ho gaye aur misr ke vaadyayantron ne bhi Asiaee sanskrutiyon ke bhaari prabhaav ko pratibinbit kiya.[29] naveen saamraajya ke logon ne, apne nae saanskrutik prabhaavon ke tahat obo, turahi, laaiar, lyut, kaistanet aur jhaanjh ka upayog shuroo kiya.[31]

misr aur mesopotaamiya ke vipreet, ijraayal mein 2000 se 1000 E.poo. ke beech peshevar sangeetakaar maujood naheen the. jabki mesopotaamiya aur misr mein sangeet vaadyayantr ka itihaas kalaatmak chitran par nirbhar karta hai, isaraail ki sanskruti ne bahut kam hi aise chitran utpann kiye. isliye vidvaanon ko baaibal aur talmood se praapt jaankaariyon par bharosa karna chaahiye.[32] hibroo granth, jubal yugab aur kinnor se jude do yantron ka ullekh karta hai. inhein kramash: pain pipe aur laaiar ke roop mein anuvaad kiya ja sakta hai.[33] is avadhi ke anya vaadya mein shaamil hai tofs, ya frem drum, chhoti ghanti ya jingal jise paamon kaha jaata tha, shofar aur turahi ki tarah ka hasosara.[34] 11veen shataabdi E.poo. ke dauraan, ijraail mein raajashaahi ke parichay ne pehle peshevar sangeetakaaron ko utpann kiya aur unke saath vaadyayantron ki kismon aur sankhya mein abhootapoorv vruddhi hui.[35] haalaanki, upakaranon ko pehchaanana aur vargeekrut karna, kalaatmak vyaakhya ki kami ke kaaran chunauti bana hua hai. udaaharan ke liye, esars aur nevals naam ke, anishchit dijaain ke taar vaale vaadya maujood the, lekin na to puraatatv aur na hi vyutpatti vigyaan, unhein spasht roop se paribhaashit kar sakta hai.[36] apni pustak, a sarve of myoojikl instroomeint mein ameriki sangeet vaigyaanik sibil maarkas vichaar rakhate hain ki nevel zaroor "nabala", "haarp" ke liye fonesiaai shabd, se apne sambandh ke kaaran urdhvaadhar haarp ke samaan hoga.[37]

grees, rom aur itrooriya mein vaadyayantron ka upayog aur vikaas, un sanskrutiyon dvaara moortikla aur vaastukala mein upalabdhiyon ke bilkul vipreet deekhata hai. us samay ke upakaran saral the aur lagbhag sabhi ko anya sanskrutiyon se aayaatit kiya jaata tha.[38] laaiar pramukh vaadya the, choonki sangeetakaar unka istemaal devataaon ko sammaan dene ke liye karte the.[39] yoonaani log vibhinn prakaar ke hava ke vaadyayantr bajaate the jinhein ve aulos (reed) ya sirinks (baansuri) ke roop mein vargeekrut karte the; us samay ka yoonaani lekhan, reed utpaadan aur vaadan takaneek ke gahan adhyayan ko darshaata hai.[6] roman log tibiaa naam ka reed upakaran bajaate the jiske agal-bagal chhed hota tha jise khola aur band kiya ja sakta tha, jisse vaadan ke tareekon mein adhik lacheelaapan praapt hota tha.[40] is kshetr mein jo anya upakaran aam prayog mein the unamein shaamil hai, oordhvaadhar haarp jise oriyent se liya gaya tha, misr shaili ke lyut, vibhinn pipe aur organ aur klaipar, jo mukhya roop se mahilaaon dvaara bajaae jaate the.[41]

Bhaarat mein praarambhik sabhyataaon dvaara prayukt vaadyayantron ke saakshyon ki lagbhag poori tarah se kami hai, jisse is kshetr mein sarvapratham base munda aur Dravid bhaasha bolne waali sanskrutiyon ko vaadyayantr ka shreya dena asambhav ho jaata hai. balki, is kshetr mein vaadyayantr ka itihaas sindhu ghaati sabhyata ke saath shuroo hota hai jo kareeb 3000 E. poo. ke aaspaas ubhari. khudaai mein praapt kalaakrutiyon ke saath mile vibhinn jhunajhune aur seetiyaan hi vaadyayantr ka ekamaatr bhautik saboot hain.[42] ek mitti ki pratima se drum ke prayog ka sanket milta hai aur sindhu lipi ki jaanch mein bhi oordhvaadhar dhanushaakaar haarp ke chitran ka pata chala hai jinki shaili sumeriyn kalaakrutiyon mein chitrit haarp ke samaan hai. yeh khoj un kai anya sanketon mein se ek hai jinse pata chalta hai ki sindhu ghaati aur sumeriyn sanskrutiyon mein saanskrutik sampark bana hua tha. Bhaarat mein vaadyayantron mein hue baad ke vikaas rigved ya dhaarmik geeton ke saath hue. in geeton mein vibhinn drum, turahiyaan, haarp aur baansuri ka istemaal hota tha.[43] isavi ki praarambhik sadiyon ke dauraan upayog kiye jaane vaale anya pramukh vaadya mein shaamil tha sapere ki dohari shahanaai, baigapaaip, barrel drum, kraus baansuri aur laghu tamboora. kul milaakar, Bhaarat mein madhya yug tak koi adviteeya vaadyayantr naheen tha.[44]

ek cheeni kaath machhali, jiska prayog bauddh paath mein kiya jaata tha

vaadyayantr jaise jithr 1100 isa poorv ke aaspaas aur usase pehle likhe gaye cheeni saahitya mein dikhaai dete hain.[45] praarambhik cheeni daarshanikon jaise kanfyusias (551-479 E.poo.) aur mensias (372-289 E.poo.) aur laaoji ne cheen mein vaadyayantron ke vikaas ko aakaar diya aur unhonne sangeet ke prati yoonaaniyon ke samaan hi drushtikon apnaaya. cheeni logon ka maanana tha ki sangeet, charitra aur samudaaya ka ek anivaarya hissa hai aur unhonne apne vaadyayantron ko unke saamagri shrrungaar ke anusaar vargeekrut karne ki anoothi pranaali viksit ki.[46] idiyofon, cheeni sangeet mein atyant mahatvapoorn the, isliye adhikaansh aaranbhik upakaran idiyofon hain. shaang vansh ka kaavya, ghanti, chaaim, drum aur haddi se bani vartulaakaar baansuri ka ullekh karta hai, jismein se baansuri ko puraatatvavidon ne khoda hai aur sanrakshit kiya hai.[47] jhou raajavansh, ne parakashan upakaranon ka parichay karaaya jaise klaipar, naand, kaath machhali aur you. pavan vaadya jaise baansuri, pain-pipe, pitch-pipe aur maut organ bhi is avadhi mein saamane aae.[48] laghu tamboora, naashapaati ke aakaar ka ek pashchimi vaadya jo kai sanskrutiyon mein faila, cheen mein haan raajavansh ke dauraan prayog mein aaya.[49]

haalaanki, gyaarahaveen shataabdi isavi tak madhya America mein sabhyataaon ne apekshaakrut thoda uchch parishkrut star praapt kiya, vaadyayantr ke vikaas mein unhonne anya sabhyataaon ko peechhe chhod diya. udaaharan ke liye, unke paas taaravaala koi yantr naheen tha; unke sabhi upakaran idiyofon, drum aur pavan vaadya the jaise baansuri aur turahiyaan. inmein se keval baansuri thi jo dhun utpann karne mein saksham thi.[50] iske vipreet, aadhunik peroo, kolambiya, ikvaador, boleeviya aur chili jaise kshetron ki poorv-kolambiaai dakshin ameriki sabhyataaen, saanskrutik roop se kam unnat theen lekin sangeet ke khyaal se adhik unnat thi. us samay ki dakshin ameriki sanskruti mein pain-pipe ka prayog hota tha, saath hi saath baansuri ki kismon, idiyofon, drum aur khol ki ya lakdi ki turahiyon ka bhi istemaal hota tha.[51]

madhya yug

samay ki is avadhi ke dauraan jise madhya yug ke roop mein bhi sandarbhit kiya jaata hai, cheen ne, videshi deshon ko jeet kar ya unke dvaara shaasit hokar sangeet prabhaavon ko ekeekrut karne ki parampara ka vikaas kiya. is prakaar ke prabhaav ka pehla ullekh 384 E. mein milta hai, jab cheen ne turkistaan mein vijay ke baad apni shaahi sabha mein poorvi turkistaan orkestra ki sthaapana ki. Bhaarat, mangoliya aur anya deshon ke prabhaav bhi padte rahe. vaastav mein, cheeni parampara us samay ke adhikaansh vaadyayantron ka shreya in deshon ko deti hai.[52] jhaanjh aur gaung lokapriya hue, saath hi turahi, klairinet, obo, baansuri, drum aur tamboore ka svaroop bhi unnat hua.[53] kuchh pehle jhuke jithr, cheen mein 9veen ya 10veen shataabdi mein cheen mein dikhaai diye, jo mangoliyaai sanskruti se prabhaavit the.[54]

cheen ki tarah Bhaarat ne bhi madhya yug mein samaan vikaas ka anubhav kiya; tathaapi, taaravaale vaadya, sangeet ki vibhinn shailiyon ko samaayojit karne ke liye alag tareeke se viksit hue. jahaan cheen ke taaravaale upakaranon ko chaaim ki dhvani se milti-julati dhvani ko utpann karne ke liye dijaain kiya gaya tha, Bhaarat ke taaravaale vaadya kaafi adhik lacheele the. yeh lacheelaapan, hindu sangeet ke slaaid aur tremolo ke anukool tha. us samay ke bhaarateeya sangeet mein laya ka mahatva sarvopari tha, jaisa ki madhya yug ki kalaakrutiyon mein aksar ankit dhol dvaara siddh hota hai. taal par jor, bhaarateeya sangeet ka ek mool pahaloo hai.[55] itihaasakaar, madhya yugeen Bhaarat mein vaadyayantron ke vikaas ko, pratyek avadhi ke dauraan vibhinn prabhaavon ki vajah se poorv-islaami aur islaami mein vibhaajit karte hain.[56] poorv-islaam avadhi mein, idiyofon jaise haath ki ghanti, jhaanjh aur gaung se milta-julata ek ajeeb vaadya, hindu sangeet mein vyaapak se prayog mein aaya. gaung-sadrush yeh upakaran ek kaansya chakari tha jise ek mungari ke bajaay ek lakdi ke hathaude se thoka jaata tha. naleedaar drum, chhadi vaale jithr jinka naam veena tha, laghu fidl, dohari aur tihri baansuri, chakraakaar turahiyaan aur ghumaavadaar bhaarateeya seeng is avadhi mein ubhare.[57] islaami prabhaavon ne nae prakaar ke dhol ko janm diya, jo poorv-islaami kaal ke aniyamit dhol ke vipreet, bilkul gol ya ashtakon the.[58] faarasi prabhaav ke kaaran sitaar aur shahanaai aae, yadyapi faarasi sitaar mein teen taar hote the bhaarateeya sanskaran mein chaar se saat tak hote the.[59]

ek indoneshiyaai metaalofon

dakshin poorv Asia ko vaadyayantron mein navaachaaron ki ek shrrunkhala laane ka shreya diya jaata hai, vishesh roop se 920 E. ke aaspaas jab ek baar unka bhaarateeya prabhaav ka kaal samaapt ho gaya.[60] baali aur jaava ke sangeet ne jaayalofon aur uske baad ke peetal ke sanskaranon, metaalofon ka kaafi upayog kiya.[61] dakshin poorv Asia ka sabse pramukh aur mahatvapoorn vaadya yantr ghanta tha. jabki sambhaavana yeh hai ki ghanta, barma aur Tibet ke beech ke bhaugolik kshetr mein utpann hua, yeh dakshin poorv Asiaee kshetron, jaise jaava aur malaya dveepasamooh mein maanav ki har varg ki gatividhiyon ka hissa tha.[62]

saataveen shataabdi mein islaami sanskruti dvaara ekajut kiye jaane ke baad mesopotaamiya ke kshetron aur arab praayadveep ne vaadyayantron mein teji se vikaas aur unhein saajha kiya.[63] frem drum aur vibhinn gaharaai vaale belanaakaar drum, sangeet ki sabhi shailiyon mein behad mahatvapoorn the.[64] shahanaaiyaan, vaivaahik aur khatana samaarohon ke sangeet mein shaamil theen. faarasi laghuchitr, mesopotaamiya mein viksit nagaada par jaankaari pradaan karte hain jinka prasaar jaava tak hua.[65] vibhinn tamboore, jithr, dulsimr aur haarp, dakshin mein medaagaaskar tak aur poorv mein aadhunik sulaavesi tak faila.[66]

yoonaan aur rom ke prabhaavon ke baavajood, madhya yug ke dauraan Europe mein adhikaansh vaadyayantr Asia se aae. laaiar ekamaatr aisa vaadya hai jo is avadhi tak ho sakta hai Europe mein aavishkaar kiya gaya ho.[67] taaravaale upakaran, madhya yugeen Europe mein pramukh the. madhya aur uttari kshetron mein mukhya roop se laaiar, gardan vaale taarayukt upakaran prayog kiye jaate the, jabki dakshini kshetr mein tamboora ka istemaal kiya jaata tha, jismein dohare baanh wala shareer aur krausabaar hota tha.[67] vibhinn prakaar ke haarp, madhya aur uttari Europe ke saath-saath sudoor uttar mein Ireland tak bajaae jaate the, jahaan haarp antat: raashtreeya prateek ban gaya.[68] laaiar ka bhi inhi kshetron mein prachaar hua, jo poorv mein estoniya tak gaya.[69] 800 aur 1100 ke beech Europeeya sangeet adhik parishkrut ho gaya jismein polifoni mein saksham vaadyayantron ki aksar aavashyakta hone lagi. 9veen shataabdi ke faarasi bhoogolashaastri (ibn khordaadabeh) ne vaadyayantron ki apni kosharachana sanbadhi charcha mein kaha hai ki beejaantin saamraajya ke vishisht vaadyayantron mein shaamil hain uraghun (organ), shilyaani (shaayad ek prakaar ka haarp ya laaiar), salanj (shaayad ek baigapaaip) aur beejaantin laaiar (yoonaani: λaaύaaρaaα ~ lūaarā).[70] laaiar ek madhyayugeen naashapaati numa jhuka hua taaravaala upakaran tha jismein teen se paanch taar hote the aur ise seedhe pakada jaata tha. yeh jhuke hue adhikaansh Europeeya upakaranon ka poorvaj hai, jismein vaayalin shaamil hai.[71] monokaurd, sangeet ke paimaane par noton ke sateek maapan ka kaam karta tha jisse adhik sateek sangeet anukoolan ki anumati milti thi.[72] yaantrik hardi-gardi ne, ekal sangeetakaaron ko fidl ki apeksha adhik jatil sangeet rachana bajaane ki anumati di; donon hi madhya yug ke pramukh lok vaadyayantr the.[73][74] dakshini Europe vaasi, chhote aur lambe tamboore bajaate the jinke khoonte kinaaron tak badhe hote the, jo madhya aur uttari Europeeya upakaranon ke pashch-mukhi khoonton ke vipreet tha.[75] klaipar aur ghantiyon jaise idiyofon kai vaastavik prayojanon mein kaam aate the, jaise kisi kodhi ke aane ki chetaavani dene ke roop mein.[76] nauveen shataabdi ne pratham baigapaaip ko saamane rakha, jo poore Europe mein faila aur iska lok vaadyayantr se lekar sainya upakaran ke roop mein vibhinn upayog hota tha.[77] Europe mein viksit vaayaveeya organ ka nirmaan, jo paanchaveen shataabdi mein Spain mein shuroo hua tha, England mein 700 mein faila.[78] iske parinaamasvaroop jo upakaran nikle unka aakaar aur prayog bhinn tha, jaise chhote organ ko gale mein pahana jaata tha.[79] dasveen shataabdi ke ant mein english benidiktin aibej mein bajaae jaane vaale organ ki saahitya mein charcha, organ ke charchon se jude hone ka pehla sandarbh prastut karti hai.[80] madhya yug ke reed vaadak, obo tak hi seemit the; is avadhi ke dauraan klairinet ke koi saboot maujood naheen hain.[81]

aadhunik

punarjaagaran

1400 ke baad se vaadyayantr ke vikaas mein pashchimi Europe ka prabhutv raha - vaastav mein, sabse pramukh parivartan punarjaagaranakaaleen avadhi ke dauraan hue. gaayan ya nrutya ka saath dene ke alaava vaadyayantron ne anya prayojanon mein kaam kiya aur pradarshanakartaaon ne unhein ekal upakaran ke roop mein istemaal kiya. keebord aur tamboore, pauleefonik upakaranon ke roop mein viksit hue aur sangeetakaaron ne adhik unnat taibalechar ka upayog karke jatil rachanaaon ka vikaas kiya. sangeetakaaron ne, vishisht vaadyon ke liye sangeet ke tukade dijaain karna shuroo kiya.[14] solahaveen sadi ke baad ke aadhe samay mein, vibhinn upakaranon ke liye sangeet lekhan ki ek vidhi ke roop mein vaadyavrundkaran ek aam abhyaas ho gaya. jahaan vyaktigat kalaakaaron ne swayam ka vivek lagaaya tha, vaheen sangeetakaaron ne ab vaadyavrundkaran ko laagoo kiya.[82] lokapriya sangeet mein pauleefonik shaili ka prabhutv raha aur upakaran nirmaataaon ne tadanusaar pratikriya di.[83]

lagbhag 1400 mein shuruaat ke saath, sangeet vaadyayantron ke vikaas ki dar mein atyadhik vruddhi hui kyonki rachanaaon ko adhik gatisheel dhvani ki aavashyakta thi. logon ne vaadyayantron ke nirmaan, vaadan aur soocheebaddh karne ke baare mein pustak likhna shuroo kiya; aisi pehli kitaab sebastiyn firdung ki 1511 granth Musica getuscht und angezogen thi (angreji: myujik jarmanaaijd end ebstraikted).[82] firdung ki kruti ko vishesh roop se isliye bhi poorn maana jaata hai kyonki usane "aniyamit" upakaranon ka vivran bhi shaamil kiya hai jaise shikaari ki seeng aur gaaya ki ghantiyaan, haalaanki firdung ne inki aalochna bhi ki hai. baad mein anya pustakein bhi aain, jismein shaamil theen arnolt shlik ki Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (angreji: mirror of organ mekars end organ pleyars) usi varsh I yeh pustak organ nirmaan aur organ vaadan par ek granth hai.[84] punarjaagaran kaal mein prakaashit, anudeshaatmak pustakon aur sandarbhon mein se, ek pustak ko hava aur taar vaale sabhi vaadya ke vistrut vivran aur chitran ke liye vikhyaat hai jismein unka tulanaatmak aakaar diya gaya hai. Michael pretorias ki is pustak, sintaagma myujikm ko solahaveen sadi ke vaadyayantron ka ek aadhikaarik sandarbh maana jaata hai.[85]

solahaveen sadi mein, vaadyayantr nirmaataaon ne adhikaansh upakaranon ko jo "shaastreeya aakrutiyaan" Dean, vah aaj bhi chal rahi hai, jaise vaayalin. svaroop saundarya par bhi dhyaan diya jaane laga - shrota ek vaadyayantr ke roop saundarya se utane hi mugdh hote the jitna usaki dhvani se. isliye, nirmaataaon ne saamagri aur kaareegari par vishesh dhyaan diya aur vaadyayantr sangrahaalayon aur gharon mein sangrahaneeya ban gaye.[86] yahi avadhi thi jiske dauraan nirmaataaon ne, sangeet-sanghon, aise dal jo in vaadyayantron ke samoohon ke liye likhi gayi rachana ko bajaate the, ki jrooraton ko poora karne ke liye ek hi prakaar ke upakaranon ka nirmaan vibhinn aakaaron mein karna shuroo kiya.[87] yantr nirmaataaon ne aise gunon ko viksit kiya jo aaj bhi chal rahe hain. udaaharan ke liye, jab bahu-keebord vaale organ maujood the, ekal thaharaav vaale organ pandrahaveen sadi ke aarambh mein ubhare. ye thaharaav laya ke ek mishran ko utpann karne ke liye the, yeh ek aisa vikaas tha jo us vakt ke sangeet ki jatilta ke liye aavashyak tha.[88] suvaahyata mein sudhaar karne ke liye turahiyon ko unhein aaj ke aadhunik svaroop mein viksit kiya gaya aur chaimbar sangeet mein mishran karne ke liye vaadak myoot ka istemaal karte the.[89]

bairok

satrahaveen sadi ki shuruaat se sangeetakaaron ne aur adhik bhaavuk shaili ki rachanaaen nirmit karna shuroo kiya. unhein laga ki ek monofonik shaili, bhaavanaatmak sangeet ke adhik anukool hai aur unhonne un vaadyayantron ke liye sangeet ke tukade likhe jo maanav ki gaayan dhvani ke poorak hote the.[83] nateejatan, aise kai upakaran, jo vistrut seema aur gatisheelata ke kaabil naheen the aur jiske chalte unhein bhaavaheen ke roop mein dekha jaane laga, pasand se baahar ho gaye. aisa hi ek vaadya tha obo.[90] jhuke hue upakaran jaise vaayalin, vaayola, bairiton aur vibhinn tamboore ka lokapriya sangeet mein prabhutv bana raha.[91] lagbhag 1750 ke aaspaas shuroo hote hue, gitaar ki badhti lokapriyta ke kaaran tamboora, sangeet rachanaaon se gaayab ho gaya.[92] taarayukt vaadyavrund ki vyaapakata mein vruddhi ke saath, unhein sunane ki ekarasata ki pratikriya svaroop, hava vaale vaadya jaise baansuri, obo aur basoon ki taraf pun: rujhaan badha.[93]

satrahaveen sadi ke madhya mein, us vaadya ka jise shikaari ki seeng kaha jaata tha ek "kalaatmak vaadyayantr" mein roopaantaran hua aur usamein ek lamba tube, ek parimit bor, ek chaudi ghanti aur adhik vyaapak range joda gaya. is badlaav ke vivran aspasht hain, lekin aadhunik seeng ya aur adhik aam bhaasha mein, fraanseesi seeng, 1725 tak ubhari.[94] ek slaaid trampet ka janm hua, yeh ek parivrtit roop tha jismein ek lamba maauthapees tha jo andar aur baahar sarakata tha, jisse vaadak ko pitch mein anant samaayojan ka avsar milta tha. turahi ka yeh bhinn roop, iske vaadan mein shaamil kathinaai ke kaaran alokapriya raha.[95] bairok avadhi mein, organ mein taan sambandhit parivartan hue, choonki London ke Abraham jaurdan jaise nirmaataaon ne thaharaav ko adhik arthapoorn banaaya aur kuchh upakaran jode jaise arthapoorn paidal. saaks ne is pravrutti ko organ ki saamaanya dhvani ke "patan" ke roop mein dekha.[96]

vargeekaran

mukhya lekh : Musical instrument classification

vaadyayantron ko vargeekrut karne ke kai alag-alag tareeke hain. sabhi tareekon mein upakaran ke bhautik gunon, vaadyayantr par sangeet kaise pradarshit kiya jaata hai aur orkestra ya anya sangeet-samoohon mein vaadya ki sthiti ke kuchh sanyojan ki jaanch ki jaati hai. kuchh tareeke, visheshagyon ke beech is asahamati ke parinaamasvaroop utpann hote hain ki vaadyayantron ka vargeekaran kaise kiya jaana chaahiye. jabki vargeekaran pranaali ka poora sarvekshan karna is lekh ke daayare se pare hai, pramukh pranaaliyon ka ek saaraansh nimn hai.

praacheen paddhati

ek praacheen pranaali, jo kam se kam 1 shataabdi E.poo. se chali aa rahi hai, vaadyayantron ko chaar mukhya vargeekaran samoohon mein vibhaajit karti hai: ve upakaran jahaan dhvani taar hilaane se utpann hoti hai; ve vaadyayantr jahaan dhvani hava ke khandon ke kampan ke dvaara utpann hoti hai; lakdi ya dhaatu ke bane parakashan vaadyayantr; aur chamade ke mukh vaale parakashan upakaran ya drum. Victor-Charles mahilon ne baad mein, bahut kuchh isi prakaar ki pranaali ko apnaaya. ve brasels mein sangeetavidyaalaya mein vaadyayantr sangrah ke sanrakshak the aur sangrah ki 1888 ki soochi ke liye vaadyayantron ko chaar samoohon mein vibhaajit kiya; taarayukt vaadya, haav vaale vaadya, parakashan vaadya aur drum.

saaks-hornabostel

erik vaun hornabostel aur kart saaks ne baad mein praacheen paddhati ko liya aur 1914 mein Zeitschrift füaar Ethnologie mein vargeekaran ke liye ek vyaapak nai yojana prakaashit ki. unki paddhati ko aaj vyaapak roop se prayog kiya jaata hai aur ise aksar hornabostel-saaks paddhati ke roop mein jaana jaata hai.

mool saaks-hornabostel paddhati ne vaadyayantron ko chaar mukhya samoohon mein vargeekrut kiya:

  • ghan vaadya, jaise jaayalofon aur raital, khud ke kampan dvaara dhvani utpann karte hain; unhein kanakashan, parakashan, sheken, skraipd, split aur plakd ghan vaadya mein vibhaajit kiya jaata hai.[97]
  • avanaddh vaadya, jaise drum ya kaajoo, ek jhilli ke kampan se dhvani utpann karte hain; unhein preedram avanaddh vaadya, tyoobalar drum, frikshan ghan vaadya, degachi aur mirleetan mein vibhaajit kiya jaata hai.[98]
  • tat vaadya, jaise piyaano ya selo, jo taar ke kampan se dhvani utpann karte hain; unka vibhaajan jithr, keebord tat vaadya, laaiar, haarp, lyut aur jhuke tat vaadya mein kiya jaata hai.[99]
  • sushir vaadya, jaise pipe organ ya nafeeri (obo), jo hava ke khandon ke kampan dvaara dhvani utpann karte hain; unhein mukt sushir vaadya, baansuri, organ, reed pipe aur honth kampit sushir vaadya mein vibhaajit kiya gaya hai.[100]

saaks ne baad mein ek paanchavaan varg joda, ilektrofon, jaise theramin, jo electronic tareeke se dhvani utpann karte hain.[101] pratyek varg ke bheetar kai up-samooh hain. is pranaali ki aalochna ki gayi aur ise pichhle varshon mein sanshodhit kiya gaya, lekin iska vyaapak roop se prayog orgenolojist aur ethanomyujikolojist dvaara hi kiya jaata hai.

shaifnar

Andre shaifnar, Muséae de l'Homme ke sanrakshak, saaks-hornabostel pranaali se asahamat the aur unhonne 1932 mein apni khud ki pranaali viksit ki. shaifnar ka maanana tha ki ek vaadyayantr ke vargeekaran ka nirdhaaran, uske vaadan ki vidhi ke bajaay usaki shaareerik sanrachana ko karna chaahiye. unki paddhati ne vaadyayantron ko do vargon mein baanta: aise vaadya jinka shareer thos aur kampan yukt hai aur aise vaadya jinmein kampit hava hoti hai.[102]

seema

pashchimi vaadyayantron ko bhi, usi parivaar ke anya upakaranon ke saath tulana mein aksar unki sangeet seema dvaara vargeekrut kiya jaata hai. in shabdaavaliyon ko gaayan ki aavaaj ke vargeekaran ke aadhaar par rakha gaya hai:

  • sopraano vaadya: baansuri, rikaurdar, vaayalin, turahi, shahanaai, obo, kornet, flugelahaurn, pikolo turahi, pikolo.
  • olto vaadya: olto saiksofon, olto baansuri, vaaila, seeng, olto haurn
  • tenar vaadya: trombon, tenar saiksofon, baas turahi.
  • baireeton: basoon, angreji haurn, baireeton saiksofon, baireeton haurn, baas klairinet, selo, yufonim, baas trombon
  • baas vaadya: kontra basoon, baas saiksofon, double baas, tuba
  • kontraabaas vaadya: kontraabaas saiksofon, kontraabaas bagal

kuchh upakaran ek se adhik shreni mein aate hain: udaaharan ke liye, selo ko ya to tenar ya baas maana ja sakta hai, yeh is baat par nirbhar karta hai ki iska sangeet samooh mein kaise fit baithata hai aur trombon ho sakta hai olto, tenar, ya baas aur French haurn, baas, bairiton, tenar, ya olto, is baat par nirbhar karte hue ki kis s par range yeh khela jaata hai.

saaaincha:Vocal and instrumental pitch ranges

kai vaadyayantron mein range, unke naam ke hisse ke roop mein hota hai: sopraano saiksofon, tenar saiksofon, baireeton saiksofon, olto baansuri, baas baansuri, olto rikaurdar, baas gitaar, aadi. atirikt visheshan, sopraano range se oopar ya baas se neeche ke vaadya ka varnan karte hain, udaaharan ke liye: sopraanino saiksofon, kontraabaas klairinet.

jab kisi vaadya ke naam mein istemaal kiye jaate hain to ye shabd saapeksh hote hain, jo vaadyayantr ke range ko uske parivaar ke anya upakaranon ki tulana mein varnit karte hain aur na ki maanav aavaaj ke range mein ya anya parivaaron ke upakaranon ki tulana mein. udaaharan ke liye, ek baas baansuri ka range C3 se F♯6 tak hai, jabki ek baas klairinet ek saptak neeche bajata hai.

nirmaan

vaadya yantr ka nirmaan ek vishesh vyavasaaya hai jiske liye varshon ka prashikshan, abhyaas aur kabhi-kabhi ek prashikshu banane ki aavashyakta hoti hai. vaadyayantron ke adhikaansh nirmaata, vaadyayantr ki kisi ek shaili ke visheshagya hote hain, udaaharan ke liye, ek luthiar keval taaravaale vaadya banaata hai. kuchh nirmaata keval ek prakaar ke vaadya banaate hain jaise piyaano.

upayogakarta intarafes

bhale hi vaadyayantr mein dhvani kaise bhi utpann hoti ho, kai vaadyayantron mein upayogakarta intarafes ke roop mein ek kunjeepatal hota hai. kunjeepatal vaadyayantr, aise vaadyayantr hain jinhein jinhein ek sangeet kunjeepatal dvaara bajaaya jaata hai. har kunji ek ya ek se adhik dhvani utpann karti hai; adhikaansh kunjeepatal upakaranon mein, in dhvaniyon mein utar-chadhaav karne ke liye atirikt saadhan hote hain (piyaano ke liye pedal, ek organ ke liye antaraal). ve hava ke hilne se (organ) ya pamp karne se (akordiyn) dhvani utpann kar sakte hain,[103][104] hilte taaron ko thokakar (piyaano) ya kheenchakar (haarpaseekaurd),[105][106] electronic tareekon dvaara (sinthesaaijr),[107] ya kisi anya tareeke se. kabhi-kabhi, aise vaadyayantr jinmein aamtaur par ek kunjeepatal naheen hota hai, jaise glaukenaspeel, unamein ek kunjeepatal laga diya jaata hai.[108] haalaanki unamein koi chalaayamaan hissa naheen hota hai aur unhein vaadak ke haathon mein pakade gaye mailet se bajaaya jaata hai, unamein kunjiyon ki samaan bhautik vyavastha hoti hai aur ve samaan tareeke se dhvani tarange utpann karte hain.

yeh bhi dekhein

not

  1. ↑ a aa Blades 1992, prushth 34
  2. ↑ Slovenian Academy of Sciences 1997, prushth 203-205
  3. ↑ Chase and Nowell 1998, prushth 549
  4. ↑ CBC Arts 2004
  5. ↑ Collinson 1975, prushth 10
  6. ↑ a aa Campbell 2004, prushth 82
  7. ↑ de Schauensee 2002, prushth 1-16
  8. ↑ Moorey 1977, prushth 24-40
  9. ↑ West 1994, prushth 161-179
  10. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 60
  11. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 61
  12. ↑ Baines 1993, prushth 37
  13. ↑ a aa Sachs 1940, prushth 63
  14. ↑ a aa Sachs 1940, prushth 297
  15. ↑ Blades 1992, prushth 36
  16. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 26
  17. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 34–52
  18. ↑ Blades 1992, prushth 51
  19. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 35
  20. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 52–53
  21. ↑ Marcuse 1975, prushth 24–28
  22. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 53–59
  23. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 67
  24. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 68–69
  25. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 69
  26. ↑ Remnant 1989, prushth 168
  27. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 70
  28. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 82
  29. ↑ a aa i Sachs 1940, prushth 86
  30. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 88–97
  31. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 98–104
  32. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 105
  33. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 106
  34. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 108–113
  35. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 114
  36. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 116
  37. ↑ Marcuse 1975, prushth 385
  38. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 128
  39. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 129
  40. ↑ Campbell 2004, prushth 83
  41. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 149
  42. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 151
  43. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 152
  44. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 161
  45. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 185
  46. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 162–164
  47. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 166
  48. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 178
  49. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 189
  50. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 192
  51. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 196–201
  52. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 207
  53. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 218
  54. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 216
  55. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 221
  56. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 222
  57. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 222–228
  58. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 229
  59. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 231
  60. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 236
  61. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 238–239
  62. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 240
  63. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 246
  64. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 249
  65. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 250
  66. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 251–254
  67. ↑ a aa Sachs 1940, prushth 260
  68. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 263
  69. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 265
  70. ↑ Kartomi 1990, prushth 124
  71. ↑ Grillet 1901, prushth 29
  72. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 269
  73. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 271
  74. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 274
  75. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 273
  76. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 278
  77. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 281
  78. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 284
  79. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 286
  80. ↑ Bicknell 1999, prushth 13
  81. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 288
  82. ↑ a aa Sachs 1940, prushth 298
  83. ↑ a aa Sachs 1940, prushth 351
  84. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 299
  85. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 301
  86. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 302
  87. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 303
  88. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 307
  89. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 328
  90. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 352
  91. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 353–357
  92. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 374
  93. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 380
  94. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 384
  95. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 385
  96. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 386
  97. ↑ Marcuse 1975, prushth 3
  98. ↑ Marcuse 1975, prushth 117
  99. ↑ Marcuse 1975, prushth 177
  100. ↑ Marcuse 1975, prushth 549
  101. ↑ Sachs 1940, prushth 447
  102. ↑ Kartomi 1990, prushth 174–175
  103. ↑ biknel, Stefan (1999). "the organ case". thisletavet, nikolas aur vebar, jofri (Eds.), the Cambridge kampeniyn tu the organ. pp 55-81. kembrij: kembrij university press. ISBN 0-913504-91-2.
  104. ↑ haavard, rob (2003) ऍn A tu Z of akordiyn end rileted instroomeint staukaport: robakord prakaashan ISBN 0-9546711-0-4
  105. ↑ , faain, lairi. the piyaano book, chautha sanskaran. maisaachusets: brukasaaid press, 2001. ISBN 1-929145-01-2
  106. ↑ ripin (idi) eight al. arli keebord insatroomeints. new groov musical insatroomeints series, 1989, PAPERMAC
  107. ↑ paaraadiso, J A. "electronic myujik: new vej tu play". spectrum IEEE, 34(2):18-33, December 1997.
  108. ↑ "Glockenspiel: Construction". Vienna Symphonic Library. http://vsl.co.at/en/70/3196/3204/3208/5760.vsl. abhigman tithi: 2009-08-17.

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atirikt pathan

  • Campbell, Donald Murray; Greated, Clive Alan; Myers, Arnold (2006), Musical Instruments: History, Technology and Performance of Instruments of Western Music, Oxford University Press, aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 019921185X
  • Wade-Matthews, Max (2003), Musical Instruments: Illustrated Encyclopedia, Lorenz, aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0754811824

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vikimeediya kaumans par Musical instruments se sambandhit media hai.
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