sanshayavaad

jaisa shri shivaaditya ne saptapadaarthi naamak granth mein likha hai (anavadhaaran gyaan sanshaya:) sanshaya anishchit gyaan ya sandigdh anubhav ko kehte hain. tarkasangrah ke anusaar sanshaya vah gyaan hai jismein ek hi padaarth anek virodhi dharmo ya gunon se yukt prateet hota hai (ekasmin dharmini viruddhanaanaadharmavaishishtyaavagaahijnyaaanan sanshaya:). udaaharanaarth, jab ham aaindhere mein kisi doorasth stambh ko dekhkar nishchit roop se yeh naheen jaan paate ki vah stambh hai to hamaara man dolaayamaan ho jaata hai aur ham us ek ko padaarth mein stanbhatv evam manushyatv do vibhinn dharmon ka aarop karne lagte hain. na to ham nishchayapoorvak yeh kah sakte hain ki vah padaarth stambh hai aur na yeh ki vah manushya hai. man ki aisi hi vipratipttiyukt, dvividhaagrast, nishchayarahit ya viklpaatmak avastha ko sanshaya kaha jaata hai. yeh avastha na keval jnyaaanaabhaav tatha (rajju ke sarp ke) bhram ya vipreet gyaan (vipryaya) se hi kintu yathaarth nishchitt gyaan se bhi bhinn hoti hai. at: sanshayavaad (Scepticism), naamak siddhaant ke anusaar nishchitt gyaan athva usaki sambhaavana ka nishedh kiya jaata hai. is siddhaant ko poorn roop se maananevaale vyaktiyon ke vichaaraanusaar maanav ko kabhi bhi aur kisi bhi prakaar ka vaastavik ya nishchit gyaan naheen ho sakta. sanshayavaadiyon ki rai mein hamaare mastishk ya man ki banaavat hi aisi hai ki uske dvaara ham kabhi bhi sansaar ke ya uske padaarthon ke sahi svaroop ko avagat kar sakane mein samarth naheen ho sakte.

sanshayavaad ko aangl bhaasha mein skaiptisijm (Scepticism) kehte hain. skaiptisijm ka shreeganesh isa ke poorv san 440 mein yoonaan desh ke sofist (Sofist) kahalaanevaale tarkapradhaan vyaktiyon se hua batalaaya jaata hai. parantu unka sanshayavaad saamaanya roop ka tha. suvyavasthit siddhaant ke roop mein to iska aarambh ailis (Elis) ke piro (Pyrrho) naamak prakhyaat vichaarak se, isa ke teen sau varsh poorv, hua. piro ne vaastavik gyaan ko spasht shabdon mein asambhav batalaaya hai. filiys ka taaiman (Timonof Philius 250 B.C.) usaka pramukh shishya tha. piro ke kuchh anuyaayiyon ne to, jinmein seksatas ainpireekas (Sextus Empiricus) ka naam visheshataya ullekhaneeya hai, sanshayavadi vishvaas ko is seema tak nibhaaya ki ve swayam is baad ko bhi sanshaya ki drushti se dekhne lage. in sanshayavaadiyon ke anusaar ichhaaon aur niraashaaon se samudbhoot hamaare sare hi du:khon ki utpatti padaarth vishyak hamaare paraamarsho ki apraamaanita se hi hoti hai. madhyakaaleen paashchaatya sanshayavaadiyon mein paiskal (Pascal) tatha aadhunik sanshayavaadiyon mein hyoom (David Hume) adhik prasiddh hai. paiskal ka kehna tha ki sansaar sambandhi koi bhi nishchit ya santoshaprad siddhaant buddhi dvaara sthaapit naheen kiya ja sakta aur hyoom mahodaya ne hamaari jaanane ki kshamata ko keval aanubhavik kshetr tak hi seemit batalaaya hai. unke anusaar manushya ko apne aindriya anubhav ke baahar ki baat jaanane ya kehne ka koi adhikaar naheen. koi koi vichaarasameekshak prasiddh jarman daarshanik kaaaint ko bhi sanshayavaadiyon mein shaamil kar lete hain; parantu unhein sanshayavaadi na kehkar ajnyaeyavaadi (Agnostic) kehna adhik upayukt hai, kyonki unhonne vastuon ke vaastavik ya paaramaarthik svaroop (Noumena) ko ajnyaeya ya buddhi dvaara agamya batalaaya hai, sandehaaspad naheen. aur kam se kam kaaryajagat (phenomena) ko samajh sakane ki kshamata to unhonne buddhi mein maani hi hai.

bhaaratavarsh ke kuchh sanshayavaadiyon ka ullekh "shraamanyafalasootr" aadi kuchh bauddh granthon mein milta hai. udaaharanaarth, ajitkesakanbali naamak ek vichaarak ka kehna tha ki yathaarth gyaan kabhi sambhav naheen aur Gaikwad oriental series mein prakaashit "tattavopallavasinh" naamak paandulipi ke lekhak shri jayaraashi ne kisi bhi pramaan ko, yahaaain tak ki pratyaksh pramaan ko bhi, asandigdh gyaan ka saadhan naheen maana. kabhi-kabhi kuchh log "syaadasti syaat naasti" aadi shabdon dvaara pratipaadit jain darshan ke syaadvaad ka bhi sanshayavaad samajhne lagte hain. parantu vastut: syaadvaad pratipaadit "syaat" shabd ka prayog tattat vaakya ki sandigdhata (athva asatyata) ka naheen kintu use satya ki saapekshata ka dyotak hai. svaadvaad ko paraamarshon ya nirnayo ka satyatv, paristhiti evam prasangaanukool, sveekaarya hai.

chaahe sanshayavaadi swayam kuchh bhi kahein, sanshaya ki maanasik avastha koi sukh ki avastha naheen hoti ("na sukhan sanshayaatman:" geeta, a. 4, shlok 40). aur poorn roop se sanshayavaadi hona atyant kathin hi naheen, kintu asambhav hai.

swayam sanshayavaad ki sveekruti hi usaki maanyata ka khandan kar deti hai. yadi kisi bhi prakaar ka nishchit gyaan naheen ho sakta, to fir yeh nishchaya roop se kaise kaha ja sakta hai ki kisi bhi prakaar ka nishchit gyaan sambhav naheen. ya to sanshayavaad ki maanyata asameecheen hai ya fir swayam sanshayavaad "vadatovyaaghaat dosh" se dooshit siddh hota hai. iske atirikt, hamaare vyaavahaarik jeevan ka ek ek kaarya tatsanbandhi padaarth ya vyakti ke nishchit gyaan ki maanyata par nirbhar rahata hai. vah sanshayavaad ko poornataya maan lene par chal hi naheen sakta. iseeliye to shreemadbhagavadgeeta mein "sanshayaatma vinshyati" aadi shabdon dvaara sanshayavaad ko agraahya thaharaaya hai. parantu, saath hi saath, yeh maanane se bhi inkaar naheen kiya ja sakta ki apareekshit paramparaagat maanyataaon ki andh sveekruti bhi vichaaron ke vikaas mein baadha daalati hai. at: kabhi kabhi saamaanya roop se sveekrut tathaakathit satyon ko sandeh ki drushti se dekhna bhi jnyaaanavruddhi ke liye aavashyak ho jaata hai jaisa bhaamateekaar shri vaachaspati mishr ne kaha hai, sanshaya jijnyaaasa ko janm deta hai (jijnyaaasa sanshayasya kaaryam) aur jijnyaaasa to gyaan ke liye vaanchhaneeya hai hi. aur kaaaint mahodaya ki yeh ukti ki hyoom ke "sanshayavaad ne mujhe vaichaarik roodhiyon ki nidra se jaga diya", is satya ko pramaanit karti hai. parantu buddhi ya man ko sanshaya roopi rang se poornataya raing lena aur pratyek baat par sandeh karna theek vaisa hi hai jaisa haathon mein mail na hone par bhi kisi paagal dvaara unka satat aur nirantar dhoya jaana.

• George Hansen, "CSICOP and the Skeptics," The Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research vol. 86, no. 1, January 1992, pp. 19–63. A critical history of CSICOP and U..S. skeptical organizations.
• Kleiner, Kurt (2005), "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong", NewScientist, 30 Aug 2005 Eprint
• "In the Name of Skepticism: Martin Gardner's Misrepresentations of General Semantics ," by Bruce I. Kodish, appeared in General Semantics Bulletin, Number 71, 2004. The Bulletin is published by the Institute of General Semantics
• J C Lester, "A skeptical Look at 'A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper'"
• Peter Suber, Classical Skepticism. An exposition of Pyrrho's skepticism through the writings of Sextus Empiricus
• Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century - Skeptical Inquirer Magazine
• Nonsense (And Why It's So Popular) A course syllabus from The College of Wooster.
• "sanshayavaad". Catholic Encyclopedia. (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company. - A Christian (Catholic) account of scepticism