praani
| praani, jantu, jaanavar Animals |
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| vaigyaanik vargeekaran | ||||||
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| sangh | ||||||
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praani ya jantu ya jaanavar 'ainimeliya' (Animalia) ya metaajoaa (Metazoa) jagat ke bahukoshikeeya aur sukeindrik jeevon ka ek mukhya samooh hai. paida hone ke baad jaise-jaise koi praani bada hota hai usaki shaareerik yojana nirdhaarit roop se viksit hoti jaati hai, haalaanki kuchh praani jeevan mein aage jaakar kaayaantaran (metamorphosis) ki prakiya se gujrate hain. adhikaansh jantu gatisheel hote hain, arthaat apne aap aur svatantr roop se gati kar sakte hain.
jyaadaatar jantu paraposhi bhi hote hain, arthaat ve jeene ke liye doosare jantu par nirbhar rahate hain.
adhiktam gyaat jantu sangh 542 karod saal pehle kaimbriyn visfot ke dauraan jeevaashm record mein samudri prajaatiyon ke roop mein prakat hue.
anukram
shabd ki vyutpatti
shabd 'eneemal' letin bhaasha ke shabd animaale, nayootar of animaalis, se aaya hai aur anima se vyutpann hua hai, jiska arth hai jeevit shvaas ya aatma.
aam bol-chaal ki bhaasha mein, is shabd ka istemaal gair-maanaveeya jaanvaron ke liye kiya jaata hai.[tathya vaanchhit]is shabd ki jaivik paribhaasha mein maanav sahit kingadam aaneemaalya ke sabhi sadasya shaamil hain.[1]
laakshanik gun
jantuon mein kai vishesh gun hote hain jo unhein anya sajeev vastuon se alag karte hain. jantu yookeriyotik aur bahu koshikeeya hote hain,[2](haalaaainki miksojoaa dekhein), jo unhein jeevaanu va adhikaansh protista se alag karte hain.
ve paraposhi hote hain,[3] saamaanyat: ek aantarik kaksh mein bhojan ka paachan karte hain, yeh lakshan unhein paudhon va shaivaal se alag banaata hai, (yadyapi kuchh spanj prakaash sanshleshan va naaitrojan sthireekaran mein saksham hain)[4] ve bhi paudhon, shaivaalon aur kavakon se vibhedit kiye ja sakte hein kyonki unamein kathor koshika bhitti ka abhaav hota hai,[5] sabhi jantu gatisheel hote hain,[6] chaahe jeevan ki kisi vishesh praavastha mein hi kyon na hon. adhiktam jantuon mein, bhroon ek blaasatula avastha se hokar gujarata hai, yeh jantuon ka ek vibhedak gun hai.
sanrachana
kuchh apavaadon ke saath, sabse khaaskar spanj (sangh porifera) aur plekojoaa, jantuon ke shareer alag-alag utakon mein vibhedit hote hain. in mein maansapeshiyaan shaamil hain, jo sankuchan tatha gati ke niyantran mein saksham hoti hain aur tantrika utak, jo sanket bhejata hai va un par pratikriya karta hai. saath hi inmein ek praaroopik aantarik paachan kaksh hota hai jo 1 ya 2 chhidron se yukt hota hai. jin jantuon mein is prakaar ka sangathan hota hai, unhein metaajoan kaha jaata hai, ya tab yoometaajoan kaha jaata hai jab, poorv ka prayog saamaanya roop se jantuon ke liye kiya jaata hai.
sabhi jantuon mein yukeriyotik koshikaaen hoti hain, jo kolejan aur pratyaasth glaaikoproteen se bane bahirkoshikeeya metriks se ghiri hoti hain.
yeh khol, asthi aur kantak jaisi sanranchanaaon ke nirmaan ke liye kelseekrut ho sakti hain. vikaas ke dauraan yeh ek apekshaakrut lacheela dhaancha bana leti hain jis par koshikaaen gati kar sakti hain aur sambhav jatil saranchanaaen banaate hue pun: sangathit ho sakti hain. iske vipreet, anya bahukoshikeeya jeev jaise paudhe aur kavak ki koshikaaen koshika bhitti se ghiri hoti hain aur is prakaar se pragatisheel vruddhi dvaara viksit hoti hain.
iske alaava, jantuon ki koshikaaon ka ek adviteeya gun hai antar koshikeeya sandhiyaaain: taait jankshan, gaip jankshan aur desmosom.
prajanan aur vikaas
lagbhag sabhi jantu kisi prakaar ke laingik prajanan ki prakriya se hokar gujarte hain: poliploid. in mein kuchh vishesh prajanan koshikaaen hain jo chhote gatisheel shukraanujan ya bade gatiheen andaj ke utpaadan hetu arddhasootri vibhaajan karti hain. ye sangalit hokar yugmanaj banaate hain, jo viksit hokar naya jeev banaata hai.
kai jantuon mein alaingik prajanan ki kshamata bhi hoti hai. yeh anishekajanan ke dvaara ho sakta hai, jahaaain bina nishechan ke anda bhroon mein viksit ho jaata hai, kuchh maamalon mein vikhandeekaran ke dvaara bhi aisa sambhav hai.
yugmanaj shuroo mein blaasatula naamak ek khokhale gole mein viksit hota hai, yeh koshikaaon ki punarvyavastha tatha vibhedan ki prakriya se hokar gujarata hai. spanj mein, blaasatula laarva tair kar ek nae sthaan par chala jaata hai aur ek nae spanj mein viksit ho jaata hai. adhikaansh anya samoohon mein, blaasatula mein adhik jatil punarvyavastha ki prakriya hoti hai. yeh pehle antar valayit hokar ek gesatrula banaata hai, jismein ek paachan kaksh aur do alag janan star hote hain-ek baahari baahyatvak star aur ek aantarik ant: tvak star.
adhiktam maamalon mein, in donon staron ke beech ek madhya tvak star ka bhi vikaas hota hai. ye janan star ab vibhedit hokar utak aur ang banaate hain.
khaadya aur oorja ke srot
shikaar ek jaivik antarkriya hai jismein ek shikaari (ek paraposhi jo shikaar kar raha hai) apne shikaar (jeev jis par hamla kiya gaya hai) se bhojan praapt karta hai. shikaari jeev apne shikaar jeev khaane se pehle maar bhi sakte hain aur naheen bhi, lekin shikaar ki prakriya ka parinaam hamesha shikaar jeev ki mrutyu hi hoti hai.
upabhog ki ek anya mukhya shreni hai mrutaposhan, mrut kaarbanik padaarth ka upabhog.
kai baar in donon prakaaron ke khaadya vyavahaaron mein vibhed karna mushkil ho jaata hai, udaaharan ke liye, parajeevi prajaati ek paraposhi jeev ka shikaar karti hai aur fir us par apne ande deti hai, taaki unki santati iske apaghatit hote hue kaarbanik dravya se bhojan praapt kar sake.
ek doosare par lagaaye gaye chayanit dabaav ne shikaar aur shikaari ke beech vikaasavaadi daud ko janm diya hai, jiske parinaamasvaroop kai shikaari virodhi anukoolan viksit hue hain.
jyaadaatar jantu apratyaksh roop se soorya ke prakaash se hi urja praapt karte hain. paudhe prakaash sanshleshan naamak ek prakriya ke dvaara is urja ka prayog karke soorya ke prakaash ko saadhaaran sharkara ke anu mein parivrtit kar dete hain. prakaash sanshleshan ki prakriya kaarban daaioksaaid (CO2) aur jal (H2O) ke saath shuroo hoti hai, ismein soorya ke prakaash ki oorja ko raasaayanik oorja mein badal diya jaata hai, jo glookos (C6H12O6) ke bandhon mein sanchit ho jaati hai, is prakriya ke dauraan okseejan (O2) bhi mukt hoti hai. ab is sharkara ka upayog nirmaan ikaaiyon ke roop mein hota hai, jisse paudhe mein vruddhi hoti hai. jab pashu in paudhon ko khaate hain (ya anya pashuon ko khaate hain jinhonne in paudhon ko khaaya hai), paudhon ke dbaara utpann ki gayi sharkara jantuon ke dvaara kaam mein le li jaati hai. yeh ya to jantu ke pratyaksh vikaas mein sahaayak hoti hai ya apaghatit ho jaati hai aur sangrahit saur urja chhorati hai aur is prakaar se jantu ko gati ke liye aavashyak oorja ki praapti hoti hai.
yeh prakriya glaaikolaaisis ke naam se jaani jaati hai
jantu jo jal ushma nikaas ke kareeb ya samudri tal par thande risaav ke najadeek rahate hain, ve soorya ki oorja par nirbhar naheen hain. iske bajaay, rasaayan sanshleshi jeev aur jeevaanu khaadya shrrunkhala ka aadhaar banaate hain.
utpatti aur jeevaashm record
]
aam maanyata hai ki jantu ek kashaabhiki yookeriyot se viksit hue hain. unke niktatam gyaat sajeev sambandhi hain koeno kashaabhiki, kolard kashaabhiki jinki aakaariki vishisht spanjon ke koeno saaits ke saamaan hai.
aanavik adhyayan jantuon ko ek param samooh mein rakhata hai, jise opisthokont kaha jaata hai, ismein bhi koeno kashaabhiki, kavak aur kuchh chhote parajeevi protista ke jantu shaamil hain.
yeh naam gatisheel koshikon mein kashaabhika ki prushtheeya sthiti se vyutpann hua hai, jaise adhikaansh jantuon ke sparmetojoaa, jabki anya yookeriyot jeevon mein kashaabhika agr bhaag mein paayi jaati hai.
pehle jeevaashm jo jantuon ka pratinidhitv karte hain, lagbhag 610 million varsh poorv, poorvakembriyn kaal ke ant mein prakat hue aur ye ediyaakaran ya vendiyn baayota kahalaate hain.
lekin inhein baad ke jeevaashm se sambandhit karna kathin hain kuchh aadhunik sanghon ke poorvavartiyon ka pratinidhitv kar sakte hain, lekin ve alag samooh ho sakte hain aur yeh bhi sambhav hai ki ve vaastav mein jantu na hon. unhein chhod kar, adhiktam gyaat jantu sangh, 542 million varsh poorv, kaimbriyn yug ke dauraan, svat: hi prakat hue. yeh abhi bhi vivaadit hai, ki yeh ghatna jise kaimbriyn visfot kaha jaata hai, bhinn samoohon ke beech teevr vichlan ka pratinidhitv karti hai ya paristhitiyon mein un parivrtanon ka pratinidhitv karti hai jisne jeevaashmeekaran ko sambhav banaaya. haalaaainki kuchh puraatatvavijnyaaani aur bhoovaijnyaaanik bataate hain ki jantu pehle soche jaane vaale samay se kaafi pehle prakat hue, sanbhavat: 1 billion varsh poorv.toniyn yug mein paae gaye jeevaashm chinh jaise maarg aur bill, tristareeya krumiyon jaise metaajoaa ki upasthiti ko soochit karte hain, ye sanbhavat: keinchue ki tarah bade aur jatil rahe honge (lagbhag 5 mileemeetar chaude).[7] iske alaava lagbhag 1 billion varsh poorv toniyn yug ki shuruaat mein (sanbhavat: yeh vahi samay tha jis samay is lekh mein jeevaashm chinh ki charcha ki gayi hai), stromaatolait mein kami aayi.
vividhta jo is samay stromaatolait ke roop mein charane vaale pashuon ke aagaman ko soochit karti hai, ne ordovisiyn aur paramiyn ke ant ke kuchh hi samay baad, vividhta mein vruddhi ki, jisse badi sankhya mein charane vaale samudri jantu lupt ho gaye, unki janasankhya mein pun: praapti ke kuchh hi samay baad unki sankhya mein kami aa gayi.
vah khoj jo in praarambhik jeevaashm chinhon ke bahut adhik saamaan hai, unki utpatti aaj ke vishaal aakar ke ek koshikeeya protista ke jeev gromiya sferika ke dvaara hui hai, is par praarambhik jantu ke vikaas ke pramaan ke roop mein unki vyaakhya par sandeh hai.[8][9]
jaanvaron ke samooh
porifera
lambe arase pehle se spanj (porifera) ko anya praarambhik jantuon se bhinn maana jaata tha. jaisa ki oopar bataaya gaya hai, anya adhikaansh sanghon mein paaya jaane wala jatil sangathan inmein naheen paaya jaata hai, unki koshikaaen vibhedit hain, lekin adhikaansh maamalon mein alag alag ootakon mein sangathit naheen hain. spanj tane rahit hote hain aur aam taur par inke chhidron ke maadhyam se jal khinch kar bhojan praapt karte hain. aarakiyokaaitha, jismein sangalit kankaal hota hai, vah spanj ka ya ek alag sangh ka pratinidhitv kar sakta hai. haalaaainki, 2008 mein 21 vanshon mein 150 jeenon ka ek failo jeenomik adhyayan[10] bataata hai ki yeh tinofora ya komb jeli hai jo kam se kam un 21 sanghon mein jantuo ka aadhaar banaati hai.
lekhak vishvaas rakhate hain ki sapanj ya kam se kam ve spanj jo unhonne khoje hain- itne aadim naheen hain, lekin iske bajaay dviteeyak roop se saraleekrut kiye ja sakte hain.
anya sangho mein, tinofora aur neederiya, jinmein samudri eneemon, koral aur jeleefish shaamil hain, trijyaat samamit hote hain, inmein ek hi chhidr se yukt paachan kaksh hota hai, jo mukh aur guda donon ka kaam karta hai.
donon mein spasht vibhedit utak hote hain, lekin ye angon mein sangathit naheen hote hain.
inmein keval do mukhya janan star hote hain, baahya tvak star aur ant: tvak star, jinke beech mein keval koshikaaen bikhri hoti hain. isi liye in jantuon ko kabhi kabhi diploblaasatik kaha jaata hai. chhote plekojoaa samaan hain, lekin un mein ek sthaayi paachan kaksh naheen hota hai.
shesh jantu ek sangheeya samooh banaate hain jo baailetriya kahalaata hai. adhiktam bhaag ke liye, ve dvipaarshv samamit hote hain aur aksar ek vishishteekrut sir hota hai jo khaadya angon aur samvedi angon se yukt hota hai. shareer triploblaastik hota hai, arthaat, teenon janan paratein poorn viksit hoti hain aur utak vibhedit ang banaate hain. paachan kaksh mein do chhidr hote hain, ek mukh aur ek guda, saath hi ek aantarik deh guha bhi hoti hai jo seelom ya aabhaasi deh guha bhi kahalaati hai. in mein pratyek lakshan ke apavaad hain, haalaaainki- vyask ekaainodarmet trijyaat samamit hota hai aur vishisht parajeevi jantuon mein bahut hi saraleekrut shaareerik saranchana hoti hai.
aanuvanshik adhyayan nein baailetriya ke bheetar sambandh ko lekar hamaare gyaan ko kaafi had tak badal diya hai. adhikaansh do mukhya vanshaavaliyon se sambandh rakhate hain: dyootarostom aur protostom, jinmein shaamil hain ekadaaisojoaa, pletijoaa aur lofotrokojoaa.
is ke atirikt, dvipaarshvasamamit jeevon ke kuchh chhote samooh hain jo in mukhya samoohon ke samaksh visrit hote hue prateet hote hain.
in mein shaamil hain esolamorfa, rombojoaa aur orthonekateeda. aisa maana jaata hai ki miksojoaa, ek koshikeeya parajeevi jinhein mool roop se protojoan maana jaata tha, baailetriya se hi viksit hue hain.
dyootarosom
dyootarostom anya baailetriya, protostom se kai prakaar se bhinn hain.
donon hi maamalon mein ek poora paachan path paaya jaata hai. haalaanki, protostom (aarkiyoteron) mein praarambhik chhidr muh mein viksit hota hai aur guda alag se viksit hoti hai. dyootarostom mein yeh ulat hai. adhikaansh protostom mein, koshikaaen saadhaaran roop se gesatrula ke aantarik bhaag mein bhar jaati hain aur madhya janan star banaati hain, yeh shaaijosils vikaas kahalaata hai, lekin dyootarostom mein yeh antar janan star ke antarvalan se banta hai, jise entrosilik paauching kaha jaata hai.
dyootarostom mein adhar ke bajaay prushtheeya tantrika rajjoo hota hai aur unke bhroon mein bhinn prakaar ka vidlan hota hai.
yeh sab vivran bataata hai ki dyootarostom aur protostom alag ek sangheeya star hain. dyootarostom ke pramukh sangh hain, ekaainodarameinta aur kordeta. pehle wala trijyaat samamit hai aur vishesh roop se samudri hai, jaise taara machhali, samudri archin aur samudri kheera. doosare vaale mein mukhya roop se kasheruki jeev hain jinmein reedh ki haddi pai jaati hai. in mein shaamil hain machhali, ubhayachar, reptaail, pakshi aur stanadhaari.
inke atirikt dyootarostom mein hemeekordeta aur ekon krumi bhi shaamil hain. haalaaainki ve vartamaan mein mukhyat: naheen paae jaate hain, mahatvapoorn jeevaashmi pramaan inse sambandh rakhate hain.
chetognetha ya teer krumi bhi dyootarostom ho sakte hain, lekin adhik haal hi mein kiye gaye adhyayan protostom ke saath inke saannidhya ko darshaate hain.
ekadaaisojoaa
ekadaaisojoaa protostom hain, jinka yeh naam paritvakabhavan ya nirmochan ke dvaara vruddhi ke vishesh lakshan ke aadhaar par diya gaya hai. sabse bada jantu sangh, aarthropoda inse sambandh rakhata hai, jismein krumi, makadiyaan, kekade aur unke nikat sambandhi shaamil hain. in sabhi mein shareer khandon mein vibhaajit hota hai aur praaroopik taur par inmein yugmit upaang paae jaate hain. do chhote sangh onikofora aur taaradigreda, aarthropoda ke nikat sambandhi hain aur inmein bhi unke samaan lakshan paae jaate hain.
ekadaaisojoaa mein nimetoda ya gol krumi aate hain, yeh doosra sabse bada jantu sangh hai.
golakrumi aam taur par sookshm jeev hote hain aur lagbhag har aise vaataavaran mein utpann ho jaate hain jahaan paani hota hai. kai mahatvapoorn parajeevi hain. in se sambandhit chhote sangh hain nimetomorfa ya ashvarom krumi aur kinorahinka, priyaapulida aur loriseefera.
in samoohon ka laghukrut dehaguha hoti hai, jo aabhaasi deh guha kahalaati hai.
protostom ke shesh do samooh kabhi kabhi spaairila ke saath rakhe jaate hain, kyonki donon mein bhroon ka vikaas sarpil vidlan se hota hai.
pletijoaa
pletijoaa mein shaamil hai sangh pletihelmintheej, chapate krumi. mool roop se inhein sabse aadim prakaar ke dvipaarshvi maana jaata tha, lekin ab aisa maana jaata hai ki ve adhik jatil poorvajon se viksit hue hain.[11]
is samooh mein kai parajeevi shaamil hain, jaise flook aur feeta krumi. chapate krumi aguheeya hote hain, inmein deh guha ka aabhaav hota hai, jaisa ki unke niktatam sambandhi, sookshm jeev gesatrotrika mein hota hai.[12]
pletijoaa ke anya sangh jyaadaatar sookshm darsheeya aur aabhaasi dehaguha se yukt hote hain. sabse pramukh hain rotifera ya roteefars, jo jaleeya vaataavaran mein saamaanya hain. inmein ekeinthosifela ya shalki-sheersh vaale krumi shaamil hain, gnethostomulida, maaikrognethojoaa aur sanbhavat: sikliyofora.[13] in samoohon mein jatil jabade hote hain, jinki vajah se ye gnethifera kahalaate hain.
lofotrokojoaa
lofotrokojoaa mein sabse adhik safal do jantu sangh shaamil hain, molaska aur enelida.[14][15] pehle wala, jo doosra sabse bada jantu sangh hai, mein ghonghe, klem aur skveed jaise jantu shaamil hain aur baad vaale samooh mein khandit krumi jaise keinchuaa aur jaunk shaamil hain.
donon hi samooh lambe arase se nikat sambandhi maane jaate hain, kyonki donon mein hi trokofor laarva paaya jaata hai, lekin enelida ko aarthropoda ke adhik najadeek maana jaata tha.[16] kyonki ve donon hi khandit hote hain.
ise aam taur par sansrut vikaas maana jaata hai, kyonki donon sanghon ke beech kai aakaariki aur aanuvanshik bhed hain.[17]
lofotrokojoaa mein nimertiya ya ribban krumi, sipunkula bhi shaamil hain aur kai sangh jinmein mukh ke chaaron or pakshmaabhika ka ek pankha hota hai, lofofor kahalaate hain.[18] inhein paaramparik roop se lofo forets ke saath samoohit kiya jaata tha.[19] lekin ab aisa prateet hota hai ki ve peraafaailetik hain,[20] kuchh nimertiya ke najadeeki hain or kuchh molaska va enelida ke najadeeki hain.[21][22] inmein brekiyopoda ya lemp shel shaamil hain, jo jeevaashm rikord mein mukhya hain, ye hain entonprokata, foronida, or sanbhavat: braayojoaa ya mos jantu.[23]
model jeev
jantu mein paayi jaane waali bhaari vividhta ke kaaran, vaigyaaniko ke liye chayanit prajaatiyon ki ek chhoti sankhya ko adhyayan karna adhik kifaayati hota hai, taaki is vishay par unke kaaryon or nishkarshon se sambandh sthaapit kiya ja sake ki jantu saamaanya roop se kis prakaar se kaarya karte hain.
kyonki unhein rakhana or unamein sankaran karaana aasaan hai, fal makkhi drosofila melaanogaastar, or nimetod kenorahebadeetis eligeins lambe samay se vyaapak adhyayan kiye jaane vaale namoone ke jeev rahein hain aur pehle jeevan roopon mein se the jinhein aanuvanshik roop se anukramit kiya gaya.
ise unke jeenom ki bahut adhik apachayit avastha ke dvaara sahaj banaaya gaya, lekin yahaaain do dhaar ki talavaar kai jeeno, introns aur linkej lost ke saath hai, ye ekadaaisojoaa ke jeev saamaanya roop se jantuon ki utpatti ke baare mein hamein thoda bahut sikha sakte hain.
param sangh ke bheetar is prakaar ke vikaas ki seema, krasateshiyn, enelid aur molaska ki jeenom pariyojana ke dvaara prakat ki jaayegi, jo vartamaan mein pragati kar raha hai.
staaralet samudri eneemon jeenom ke vishleshan ne spanjon, plekojoaa aur koenokashaabhikiyon ke mahattv par jor daala hai. aur inhein eumetaajoaa ke liye adviteeya 1500 poorvaj jeenon ke aagaman ki vyaakhya mein anukramit bhi kiya ja raha hai.[24]
homoskleromorf spanj oskaarela karmela ka vishleshan bataata hai ki spanj ke antim saamaanya poorvaj aur eumetaajoaa ke jantu poorv kalpana se adhik jatil the.[25]
jantu jagat se sambandh rakhane vaale anya modal jeevon mein shaamil hain chooha (mas maskulas) aur jebaraafish (deniyo reriyo).
vargeekaran ka itihaas
arastu ne sajeev duniya ko paudhon aur jantuon mein vibhaajit kiya aur iske baad kerolas liniys (koral von line) ne pehla padaanukramit vargeekaran kiya.
tabhi se jeev vaigyaanik vikaas ke sambandhon par jor de rahe hain aur iseeliye ye samooh kuchh had tak pratibandhit ho gaye hain.
udaaharan ke liye, sookshmadarsheeya protojoaa ko mool roop se jantu maana gaya kyonki ve gati karte hain, lekin ab unhein alag rakha jaata hai.
liniys ki mool yojana mein, jantu teen jagaton mein se ek the, inhein varmeej, inasekta, piseej, emfibiya, eveej aur memeliya vargon mein vibhaajit kiya gaya tha.
tab se aakhiri ke chaar vargon ko ek hi sangh kordeta mein rakha jaata hai, jabki kai anya roopon ko alag kar diya gaya hai.
uparokt soochi samooh ke baare mein hamaare vartamaan gyaan ya samajh ka pratinidhitv karti hai, haalaanki alag alag sroton mein kuchh vividhta hoti hai.
yeh bhi dekhein
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vikispeesheej par soochana milegi, Animalia ke vishay mein |
- jantu vyavahaar
- jantu adhikaar
- fauna ya jantu
- jantuon ke naamon ki soochi
- nyoorauns ki sankhya par aadhaarit jantuon ki soochi
- paudhe
sandarbh
nots
- ↑ “aAnimal”. The American Heritage Dictionary (Forth). (2006). Houghton Mifflin Company.
- ↑ National Zoo. "Panda Classroom" (English mein). http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandasForKids/classification/classification.htm. abhigman tithi: September 30 2007.
- ↑ Jennifer Bergman. "Heterotrophs" (English mein). http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Life/heterotrophs.html&edu=high. abhigman tithi: September 30 2007.
- ↑ Douglas AE, Raven JA (January 2003). "Genomes at the interface between bacteria and organelles". Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 358 (1429): 5–17; discussion 517–8. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1188. PMC 1693093. PMID 12594915.
- ↑ Davidson, Michael W.. "Animal Cell Structure" (English mein). http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animalcell.html. abhigman tithi: September 20 2007.
- ↑ Saupe, S.G. "Concepts of Biology" (English mein). http://employees.csbsju.edu/SSAUPE/biol116/Zoology/digestion.htm. abhigman tithi: September 30 2007.
- ↑ Seilacher, A., Bose, P.K. and Pflüager, F. (1998). "Animals More Than 1 Billion Years Ago: Trace Fossil Evidence from India". Science 282 (5386): 80–83. doi:10.1126/science.282.5386.80. PMID 9756480. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/282/5386/80. abhigman tithi: 2007-08-20.
- ↑ Matz, Mikhail V.; Tamara M. Frank, N. Justin Marshall, Edith A. Widder and Sonke Johnsen (2008-12-09). "Giant Deep-Sea Protist Produces Bilaterian-like Traces". Current Biology (Elsevier Ltd) 18 (18): 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.028. http://www.biology.duke.edu/johnsenlab/pdfs/pubs/sea%20grapes%202008.pdf. abhigman tithi: 2008-12-05.
- ↑ Reilly, Michael (2008-11-20). "Single-celled giant upends early evolution". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27827279/. abhigman tithi: 2008-12-05.
- ↑ [25] ^ dann eight al. 2008."vyaapak sangheeya jeenomik namoone jeevan ke jantu vruksh mein sudhaar karte hai." nechar 06614.
- ↑ Ruiz-Trillo, I.; Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaaki; Riutort, Marta; Littlewood, D. Timothy J.; Herniou, Elisabeth A.; Baguñaà, Jaume (March 1999). "Acoel Flatworms: Earliest Extant Bilaterian Metazoans, Not Members of Platyhelminthes". Science 283 (5409): 1919–1923. doi:10.1126/science.283.5409.1919. PMID 10082465.
- ↑ Todaro, Antonio. "Gastrotricha: Overview". Gastrotricha: World Portal. University of Modena & Reggio Emilia. http://www.gastrotricha.unimore.it/overview.htm. abhigman tithi: 2008-01-26.
- ↑ Kristensen, Reinhardt Møabjerg (July 2002). "An Introduction to Loricifera, Cycliophora, and Micrognathozoa". Integrative and Comparative Biology (Oxford Journals) 42 (3): 641–651. doi:10.1093/icb/42.3.641. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/42/3/641. abhigman tithi: 2008-01-26.
- ↑ "Biodiversity: Mollusca". The Scottish Association for Marine Science. http://www.lophelia.org/lophelia/biodiv_6.htm. abhigman tithi: 2007-11-19.
- ↑ Russell, Bruce J. (Writer), Denning, David (Writer). Branches on the Tree of Life: Annelids. [VHS]. BioMEDIA ASSOCIATES.
- ↑ Eernisse, Douglas J.; Eernisse, Douglas J.; Albert, James S.; Anderson, Frank E. (1992). "Annelida and Arthropoda are not sister taxa: A phylogenetic analysis of spiralean metazoan morphology". Systematic Biology 41 (3): 305–330. doi:10.2307/2992569.
- ↑ Eernisse, Douglas J.; Kim, Chang Bae; Moon, Seung Yeo; Gelder, Stuart R.; Kim, Won (September 1996). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Annelids, Molluscs, and Arthropods Evidenced from Molecules and Morphology" ([mrut kadiyaaain]–Scholar search). Journal of Molecular Evolution (New York: Springer) 43 (3): 207–215. doi:10.1007/PL00006079. http://www.springerlink.com/content/xptr6ga3ettxnmb9/. abhigman tithi: 2007-11-19.
- ↑ [|Collins, Allen G.] (1995), The Lophophore, University of California Museum of Paleontology, http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss7/lophophore.html
- ↑ Adoutte, A.; Adoutte, André; Balavoine, Guillaume; Lartillot, Nicolas; Lespinet, Olivier; Prud'homme, Benjamin; de Rosa, Renaud (April, 25 2000). "The new animal phylogeny: Reliability and implications". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (9): 4453–4456. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4453. PMID 10781043. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/9/4453. abhigman tithi: 2007-11-19.
- ↑ Passamaneck, Yale J. (2003), "Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution" (PDF), Molecular Phylogenetics of the Metazoan Clade Lophotrochozoa, pa॰ 124, http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA417356
- ↑ Adoutte, A.; Sundberg, Per; Turbevilleb, J. M.; Lindha, Susanne (September 2001). "Phylogenetic relationships among higher nemertean (Nemertea) taxa inferred from 18S rDNA sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 20 (3): 327–334. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.0982.
- ↑ "The mitochondrial genome of the Sipunculid Phascolopsis gouldii supports its association with Annelida rather than Mollusca" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (2): 127–137. February 2002. ISSN 0022-2844. PMID 11801741. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/19/2/127.pdf. abhigman tithi: 2007-11-19.
- ↑ Nielsen, Claus (April 2001). "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta: 'Moss' Animals)". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001613. http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/emrw/9780470015902/els/article/a0001613/current/abstract. abhigman tithi: 2008-01-19.
- ↑ N.H. Putnam, et al. (July 2007). "Sea anemone genome reveals ancestral eumetazoan gene repertoire and genomic organization". Science 317 (5834): 86–94. doi:10.1126/science.1139158. PMID 17615350.
- ↑ Wang, X.; Wang, Xiujuan; Lavrov Dennis V. (2006-10-27). "Mitochondrial Genome of the Homoscleromorph Oscarella carmela (Porifera, Demospongiae) Reveals Unexpected Complexity in the Common Ancestor of Sponges and Other Animals". Molecular Biology and Evolution (Oxford Journals) 24 (2): 363–373. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl167. PMID 17090697. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/24/2/363. abhigman tithi: 2008-01-19.
granthasoochi
- klaaus neelsan . eneemal evolyooshan: intar rileshanaship of di living faaila (doosra sanskaran).oksaford university press, 2001.
- nut shmidt-neelsan. eneemal filosofi: adepateshan end enavaayaranameint . (5 vaan sanskaran).Cambridge university press, 1997.
baahari sambandh
| Animalia ke baare mein, vikipeediya ke bandhuprakalpon par aur jaane: | |
|---|---|
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shabdakosheeya paribhaashaaen |
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paathya pustakein |
 |
uddharan |
 |
mukt strot |
 |
chitr evam media |
 |
samaachaar kathaaen |
 |
gyaan saadhan |
- tri of life pariyojana
- pashu vividhta web -- Michigan vishvavidyaalaya ka jantuon ka detaabes, jo vargon ke anusaar vargeekaran, chhaviyon aur anya jaankaari ko darshaata hai.
- ARKive -vishv ki viluptapraay: / sanrakshit prajaatiyon ka malteemeediya detaabes aur yoo॰ake॰ ki aam prajaatiyaan.
- ameriki vaigyaanik patrika (December 2005 ka ank) - geting a leg ap on laind, machhaliyon se chaar paad vaale jantuon tak ka vikaas.
- jantuon par saaiton ki soochi.
saaaincha:Life
