madhyayug
roman saamraajya ke patan ke uparaant, paashchaatya sabhyata ek hajaar varshon ke liye us yug mein pravisht hui, jo saadhaaranataya madhyayug (middle ejej) ke naam se vikhyaat hai. aitihaasik reeti se yeh kehna kathin hai ki kis kis kaal athva ghatna se is yug ka praarambh aur ant hota hai. mote taur se madhyayug ka kaal pashchimi Europe mein paaainchaveen shataabdi ke praarambh se pandrahaveen tak kaha ja sakta hai.
tathaakathit madhyayug mein ekaroopata naheen hai aur iska vibhaajan do nishchit evam pruthak yugon mein kiya ja sakta hai. 11veen shataabdi ke pehle ka yug satat sangharshon, anushaasanaheenata, tatha nirksharata ke kaaran 'andhayug' kahalaaya, yadyapi ismein bhi Europe ko roopaantarit karne ke kadam uthaae gaye. is yug ka praarambh roman saamraajya ke pashyimi Europe ke pradeshon mein, barbar goth frainks vaindal tatha varagandiyn ke dvaara sthaapit jarman saamraajya se hota hai. yahaaain tak ki shaktishaali
11veen shataabdi ke ant se 15veen shataabdi tak ke uttar madhya yug mein maanav pratyek disha mein unnatisheel raha. raashtreeya ekta ki bhaavana England mein 11veen shataabdi mein, tatha France mein 12veen shataabdi mein I. shaarlamain ke uttaraadhikaariyon ki shithilta tatha isaai church ke abhyudaya ne, Pope ko isaai samaaj ka ekamaatr adhishtaata banane ka avsar diya. ataev, Pope tatha roman samraat ki pratispardha, paavan dharmayuddh, vidya ka niyantran tatha roman ketholik dharm ke antarraashtreeya svaroop ityaadi mein is pratidvandvita ka aabhaas milta hai.
13veen shataabdi ke ant tak raashtreeya raajya itne shaktishaali ho gaye the ki church ki shakti ka hraas nishchit prateet hone laga. naveen shataabdi se 14veen shataabdi tak, pashchimi Europe ka bhautik, raajaneetik tatha saamaajik aadhaar saamantavaad tha, jiske udaya ka kaaran raaja ki shaktiyon ka ksheen hona tha. samaaj ka yeh sangathan bhoomivyavastha ke maadhyam se paida hua. bhoomipti saamant ko apne raajya ke antargat saari janta ka pratyaksh svaamitv praapt tha. madhyayug naagrik jeevan ke vikaas ke liye ullekhaneeya hai. adhikaansh madhyayugeen nagar saamanton ki gadhiyon, mathon tatha vaanijya keindron ke aas paas viksit hue. 12veen tatha 13veen shataabdi mein Europe mein vyaapaar ki unnati hui. Italy ke nagar visheshataya venis tatha jenoaa poorvi vyaapaar ke kendra bane. inke dvaara Europe mein rooi, resham, bahumoolya ratn, svarn tatha masaale maingaae jaate the. purohit tatha saamant varg ke samaanaantar hi vyaapaarik varg ka khyaati praapt karna madhyayug ki visheshataaon mein hai. inheen mein se aadhunik madhyavarg prasfutit hua. madhyayug ki kala tatha bauddhik jeevan apni vishesh safalataaon ke liye prasiddh hai. madhyayug mein laitin antararaashtreeya bhaasha thi, kintu 11veen shataabdi ke uparaant varnaakyoolar bhaashaaon ke udaya ne is praacheen bhaasha ki praathamikta ko samaapt kar diya. vidya par se paadariyon ka svaamitv bhi sheeghrata se samaapt hone laga. 12veen aur 13veen shataabdi se vishvavidyaalayon ka udaya hua. arastoo ki rachanaaon ke saath saath, kaanoon, darshan, tatha dharmashaastron ka adhyayan sarvapriya hone laga. kintu vaigyaanik saahitya ka sarvatha abhaav tha. bhavan-nirmaan-kala ki pradhaanata thi, jaisa vaibhavashaali church, girjaagharon tatha nagar bhavanon se spasht hai. bhavananirmaan ki roman paddhati ke sthaan par gothik paddhati viksit hui. aadhunik yug ki adhikaansh visheshataaeain uttar madhyayug ke pravaahon ki pragaadhta hai.
baahari kadiyaaain
- Internet Medieval Sourcebook Project Primary source archive
- The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies Academic peer reviewed articles
- The Labyrinth Resources for Medieval Studies.
- NetSERF The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources.
- The Middle Ages - an informational site for teachers and students
- Information from the Medieval Period.
- De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
- Medievalists.net
- Medievalmap.org Interactive maps of the Medieval era (Flash plug-in required)
- Middle Ages, library of books available at Internet Archive
- "MacKinney Collection of Medieval Medical Illustrations"
- Medieval Realms Learning resources from the British Library including studies of beautiful medieval manuscripts
- Medieval Knights Medieval Knights is a medieval educational resource site geared to students and medieval enthusiasts.
- Charles Raymond Beazley. A Note-Book of Mediaeval History, A.D. 323- A.D. 1453. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1917. Annotated time-line of medieval history.
- The Soldier in later Medieval England Detailed service records of 250,000 medieval soldiers are online.
- Clio History Journal, Medieval History Page
- The Medieval Review