ksh-kiran

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yeh sujhaav diya jaata hai ki is lekh ya bhaag ka ऍks kiran ke saath vilay kar diya jaae. (vaarta)
yeh lekh vikirn ke aakaar ke baare mein hai. prateek ke vidhi ke liye, rediyograafi dekhein. chikitsa prasang mein prateek ke liye, radio lauji dekhein. dusare prayog hetu, ex-re (deesaimabeegueshan) dekhein.
ex-re vidyut chumbakeeya varnakram ka hissa hain.

ksh-vikirn (ex-re se nirmit) vidyut chumbakeeya vikirn ka ek roop hai. ex-re ka tarang dairdhya 0.01 se 10 nainomeetar tak hota hai, jiski aavrutti 30 petaahartj se 30 egjaahartj (3 × 1016 hartj se 3 × 1019 hartj (Hz)) aur oorja 120 ilektro volt se 120 kilo ilektro volt tak hoti hai. ex-re ka tarang dairdhya, paraabaingani kirnon se chhota aur gaama kirnon se lamba hota hai. kai bhaashaaon mein, ex-vikirn ko vilhem kaunaraad rauntagan ke naam par rauntagan vikirn kaha jaata hai, jinhein aam taur par iske aavishkaarak hone ka shreya diya jaata hai aur jinhonne ek agyaat prakaar ke vikirn ko soochit karne ke liye ise ex-re naam diya tha.[1]:1-2

bhedan kshamata ke aadhaar par lagbhag 0.12 se 12 kilo ilektro volt (keV) (10 se 0.10 nainomeetar (nm) tarangadairdhya) waali ex-re ko "mrudu" ex-re ke roop mein aur lagbhag 12 se 120 kilo ilektro volt (0.01 se 0.10 nainomeetar) tarangadairdhya vaale ex-re ko "drudh" ex-re ke roop mein vargeekrut kiya jaata hai.

drudh ex-re thos vastuon ko bhed sakti hain aur inka sabse jyaada istemaal naidaanik rediyograafi aur kristalograafi mein vastuon ki androoni tasveerein lene ke liye kiya jaata hai. parinaamasvaroop, lakshanaalankaar ki drushti se ex-re shabd ka istemaal swayam is vidhi ke alaava is vidhi ke istemaal se utpann ek rediyograafik tasveer ko sandarbhit karne ke liye bhi kiya jaata hai. iske vipreet, kaha jaata hai ki mrudu ex-ree badi mushkil se kisi padaarth ko poori tarah se bhed sakti hain; udaaharan ke liye, jal mein 600 ilektro volt (~ 2 nainomeetar) tarangadairdhya waali ex-re ka ksheenanadairdhya 1 maaikromeetar se bhi kam hota hai.[4] ex-re ek prakaar ka aayanasheel vikirn hain aur inka anaavaran svaasthya ke liye haanikaarak ho sakta hai.

haal ke dashakon mein ex-re aur gaama kirnon ke beech ke vibhed mein badlaav aaya hai. moolat:, ex-re naliyon se utsarjit hone vaale vidyut chumbakeeya vikirn ka tarangadairdhya rediyodharmi naabhik (gaama kirnon) se utsarjit vikirn ke tarangadairdhya se lamba tha.[2] puraatan saahitya tarangadairdhya ke aadhaar par ex aur gaama vikirn ke beech antar sthaapit karta tha jahaan vikirn, gaama kirnon ke roop mein paribhaashit, 10−11 meter jaise kisi ekapaksheeya tarangadairdhya se chhota tha.[3] haalaanki, apekshaakrut chhote tarangadairdhya vaale satat spectrum "ex-re" sroton, jaise - raikhik tvarakon aur apekshaakrut lambe tarangadairdhya vaale "gaama kiran" utsarjakon ki khoj hone ke kaaran tarangadairdhya ke samooh bade paimaane par paraspar aachhaadit ho gaye. aajkal saamaanyat: vikirn ke do prakaaron ko unke mool ke aadhaar par alag kiya jaata hai: ex-re naabhik ke baahar sthit ilektraunon dvaara utsarjit hoti hain jabki gaama kirnein naabhik dvaara utsarjit hoti hain.[2][4][5][6]

anukram

maap aur anaavaran ki ikaaiyaan

ex-re ki aayanasheel kshamata ki maap ko anaavaran kaha jaata hai:

  • koolamb prati kilogram (si/kigra (C/kg)), aayanasheel vikirn anaavaran ki SI (SI) ikaai hai aur yeh ek kilogram padaarth mein ek koolamb aavesh waali pratyek dhruvaabhisaarita ka nirmaan karne ke liye aavashyak vikirn ki maatra hai.
  • rauntagan (aar), anaavaran ki ek aprachalit paaramparik ikaai hai, jo ek ghan seinteemeetar shushk vaayu mein ek sthirvidyut ikaai aavesh waali pratyek dhruvaabhisaarita ka nirmaan karne ke liye aavashyak vikirn ki maatra hai. 1.00 rauntagan = 2.58×a10−4 si/kigra

haalaanki padaarth (vishesh roop se sajeev ootak) par aayanasheel vikirn ka prabhaav utpann aavesh ki apeksha unamein jama oorja ki maatra se bahut kareeb se sambandhit hota hai. is avashoshit oorja ki maap ko avashoshit maatra kaha jaata hai:

  • gre (Gy), jiski ikaai jool/kilogram hai, avashoshit maatra ki SI ikaai hai aur yeh ek kilogram maatra vaale kisi bhi prakaar ke padaarth mein ek jool oorja ko jama karne ke liye aavashyak vikirn ki maatra hai.
  • raid (aprachalit) samatulya paaramparik ikaai hai, jo prati kilogram par jama ki gayi 10 mileejool oorja ke baraabar hoti hai. 100 raid = 1.00 gre.

samatulya maatra, maanav ootak par vikirn ke jaivik prabhaav ki maap hai. jahaan tak ex-re ka savaal hai, yeh avashoshit maatra ke baraabar hota hai.

  • seevart (Sv), samatulya maatra ki SI ikaai hai, jo ex-re ke liye sankhyaanusaar gre (Gy) ke baraabar hota hai.
  • rauntagan ikvivaileint main (rem), samatulya maatra ki paaramparik ikaai hai. jahaan tak ex-re ka savaal hai, yeh raid ya 10 mileejool prati kilogram ke baraabar hota hai. 1.00 Sv = 100 rem.

medical ex-re, maanav nirmit vikirn anaavaran ka ek mahatvapoorn srot hai, jinka parimaan 1987 mein sanyukt raajya America mein 58% tha, lekin choonki adhikaansh vikirn anaavaran, praakrutik (82%) hote hain, isliye medical ex-re ka parimaan, kul ameriki vikirn anaavaran ka keval 10 pratishat hota hai.[7]

dant ex-re ki vajah se soochit maatra kaafi bhinn dikhaai deti hai. srot ke aadhaar par, ek maanav ki ek vishisht dant ex-re ki vajah se shaayad 3,[8] 40,[9] 300,[10] ya adhik se adhik 900[11] emarems (mrems) (30 se 9,000 μaSv) ke ek anaavaran ka parinaam praapt hota hai.

chikitseeya bhautiki

lakshya Kβa₁ Kβa₂ Kαa₁ Kαa₂
Fe (lohe ka raasaayanik prateek) 0.17566 0.17442 0.193604 0.193998
Co (kobaalt ka raasaayanik prateek) 0.162079 0.160891 0.178897 0.179285
Ni (nikel ka raasaayanik prateek) 0.15001 0.14886 0.165791 0.166175
Cu (kaupar ka raasaayanik prateek) 0.139222 0.138109 0.154056 0.154439
Zr (jirkoniym ka raasaayanik prateek) 0.070173 0.068993 0.078593 0.079015
Mo (maulibdenam ka raasaayanik prateek) 0.063229 0.062099 0.070930 0.071359
haind mit reengein (ringon ke saath haath): apni patni ke haath se vilhem rauntagan pehle ke saath "chikitsa" ex-re ki print, 22 December 1895 ko liya gaya aur 1 January 1896 ko profesar ludavig jheindar ko fijik insteetyut, freebarg ki vishvavidyaalaya,[13][14]

ex-re, ex-re nali se utpann hoti hain, jo ek uchch veg ke liye ek garm kaithod dvaara mukt ilektraunon ki gati badhaane ke liye ek uchch voltej ka prayog karne waali ek vaikyoom tube hai. uchch veg vaale ilektraun, enod naamak ek dhaatvik lakshya se takaraate hain, jisse ex-re ka nirmaan hota hai.[15] chikitseeya ex-re naliyon mein lakshya aam taur par tangastan ya reniym (5%) aur tangastan (95%) ka ek ati pratirodhi mishr dhaatu hota hai, lekin kabhi-kabhi adhik vishesh anuprayogon ke liye maulibdenam hota hai, jaise - maimograafi mein jab mrudu ex-re ki jaroorat padti hai. kristalograafi mein, ek taanbe ka lakshya sabse aam hai, jiske saath aksar kobaalt ka prayog kiya jaata hai jab namoone mein lauh padaarth ki pratideepti se anyatha ek samasya utpann ho sakti hai.

utpann ex-re ke fotaun ki adhiktam oorja ghatit ilektraun ki oorja dvaara seemit hoti hai, jo nali ke voltej ke baraabar hota hai, isliye 80 kevi waali ek nali 80 kilo ilektro volt adhik oorja waali ex-re ka nirmaan naheen kar sakti hai. jab ilektraun, lakshya par prahaar karte hain, tab do alag-alag paramaanvik prakriyaaon dvaara ex-re ka nirmaan hota hai:

  1. ex-re pratideepti: yadi ilektraun mein paryaapt oorja hai to yeh ek dhaatvik parmaanu ke bheetari ilektraun aavaran ke baahar ek kaksheeya ilektraun par dastak de sakta hai aur parinaamasvaroop adhik oorja staron ke ilektraun tab rikt sthaan ko bhar dete hain aur ex-re fotaun utsarjit hone lagte hain. is prakriya se ex-re ki aavrutiyon ke ek utsarjan varnakram ki utpatti hoti hai, jise kabhi-kabhi varnakrameeya rekhaaon ke roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaata hai. utpann varnakrameeya rekhaaen prayukt lakshya (enod) tatv par nirbhar karti hain aur is prakaar inhein abhilaakshanik rekhaaen kehte hain. aamtaur par ye oopari aavaranon se ke-aavaran (K shell) (ke-rekhaaen kehte hain), L aavaran (L rekhaaen kehte hain) aur isi tarah ki anya aavaran mein avasthaantar hain.
  2. bremsastraulang (Bremsstranhlung) : yeh ilektraunon dvaara mukt vikirn hai kyonki unhein uchch-Z (protaun sankhya) naabhik ke paas sashakt bijli kshetr dvaara vikher diya jaata hai. in ex-re ka ek satat varnakram hota hai. ex-re ki teevrata, ex-re nali par voltej, sanyog ilektraun ki oorja par shoonya se, ghatati aavruti ke saath raikhik roop mein badhti jaati hai.

isliye ek nali ke parinaami utpaad mein nali ke voltej par shoonya tak girne wala ek satat bremsastraulang varnakram aur saath mein abhilaakshanik rekhaaon par kai spaaik hote hain. naidaanik ex-re naliyon mein prayukt voltej aur is tarah ex-re ki uchchatam oorja lagbhag 20 se 150 kevi tak hoti hai.[16]

chikitseeya naidaanik anuprayogon mein, kam oorja waali (mrudu) ex-re avaanchhit hoti hain kyonki shareer unhein poori tarah avashoshit kar leta hai, jisse maatra badhaane ki aavashyakta padti hai. isliye, ek patali dhaatvik sheet, aksar elyoomeeniym ki sheet ya chaadar, jise ex-re filtar kaha jaata hai, ko aam taur par ex-re nali ki khidki par rakha jaata hai, jo varnakram mein kam oorja vaale ghatakon ko filtar karti hai. ise beam ka sakhteekaran kehte hain.

ex-re ke utpaadan ki ye donon prakriyaaen bahut aksham hain, inki utpaadan kshamata keval ek pratishat ke aaspaas hai aur isliye, ex-re ki ek prayog karne yogya pravaah ka utpaadan karne ke liye, input ke roop mein pravisht ki jaane waali vidyut shakti ke ek uchch pratishat ko apashisht ooshma ke roop mein mukt kiya jaata hai. ex-re nali ka design aisa hona chaahiye ki yeh is atirikt ooshma ko faila sake.

vikruti vigyaan ke ek vyaapak varnakram ki pehchaan karne ke liye ex-re ke istemaal se praapt rediyograaf ka istemaal kiya ja sakta hai. choonki chikitseeya anuprayogon mein jin shaareerik sanrachanaaon ka chitran kiya ja raha hota hai, ve ex-re ke tarangadairdhya ki tulana mein badi hoti hain, at: ex-re ko tarangon ke bajaay kanon ke roop mein vishleshit kiya ja sakta hai. (yeh ex-re kristalograafi ke vipreet hai, jahaan unki tarang jaisi prakruti adhik mahatvapoorn hoti hai kyonki tarangadairdhya, chitrit ki ja rahi sanrachanaaon ke aakaaron ke tulaneeya hota hai.)

maanav ya pashu asthiyon ke ex-re ka ek chitr banaane ke liye, laghu ex-re spandan, shareer ya ang ko prakaashit karte hain aur iske peechhe rediyograafik film rakhi hoti hai. upasthit koi bhi asthiyaan prakaash vidyut prakriyaaon dvaara ex-re ke adhikaansh fotaun ko avashoshit kar leti hain. iski vajah yeh hai ki asthiyon mein mrudu ootakon ki tulana mein uchch ilektraun ghanatv hota hai. [dhyaan dein ki asthiyon mein kailshiym (20 ilektraun prati parmaanu), potaishiym (19 ilektraun prati parmaanu), maigneshiym (12 ilektraun prati parmaanu) aur fausfaras (15 ilektraun prati parmaanu) ki maatra ka pratishat uchch hota hai. maans se hokar gujarane waali ex-re fotograafik film mein ek gupt tasveer chhod jaati hain. jab film ko develop kiya jaata hai, us samay uchch ex-re anaavaran ke samatulya tasveer ke bhaag gahre rang ke hote hain, jo film par asthiyon ki safed chhaaya chhod jaate hain.

dhamaniyon aur shiraaon (enjiyograafi) sahit, hrudayavaahini tantr ki ek chhavi utpann karne ke liye, ek ichhit sanrachanaatmak kshetr ki ek aaranbhik chhavi li jaati hai. is kshetr ke bheetar ki rakt vaahiniyon mein aayodeeneekrut vipreet rang pravisht karne ke baad isi kshetr ki tab ek doosari chhavi li jaati hai. in donon chitron ko tab digital roop mein ghataaya jaata hai, jisse keval rakt vaahiniyon ki rooparekha wala aayodeeneekrut rang shesh rah jaata hai. iske baad rediyolaujist ya shalya-chikitsak praapt ki gayi is chhavi ki tulana saamaanya sanrachanaatmak chitron se karta hai, taaki yeh gyaat kiya ja sake ki kya raktavaahini ko koi kshati pahunchi hai ya ismein koi avarodh hai.

ex-re ka ek vishesheekrut srot, jo anusandhaan mein vyaapak roop se prayukt srot banta ja raha hai, sinkrotaun vikirn hai, jise kan tvarakon dvaara utpann kiya jaata hai. iski adviteeya visheshataaen - ex-re naliyon ke parimaan se kaheen adhik ex-re utpaadon ka parimaan, vyaapak ex-re spektra, utkrusht samaantaran aur raikhik dhruveekaran hain.[17]bvfget

ditektar

fotograafik plate

vibhinn tareekon ke aadhaar par ex-re ka pata lagaaya jaata hai. sabse adhik aam taur par jaane jaane vaale tareeke - fotograafik plate, kaiset mein fotograafik film aur durlabh pruthvi screen hain. chhavi mein samaavisht hone vaale tatvon ki paravaah kiye bina in sabhi ko "imej riseptar" (aaiaar) (IR) ke roop mein vargeekrut kiya jaata hai.

digital computer ke aagaman aur digital imejing ke aavishkaar se pehle adhikaansh rediyograafik chitr utpann karne ke liye fotograafik pleton ka istemaal kiya jaata tha. in chitron ko bilkul kaanch ke pleton par utpann kiya jaata tha. fotograafik filmon ne bade paimaane par in pleton ki jagah le li aur chikitseeya chitron ko utpann karne ke liye ex-re prayogashaalaaon mein iska istemaal kiya jaata tha. aur adhik haal ke varshon mein, chikitseeya aur dant chikitseeya anuprayogon mein fotograafik film ki jagah kampyootareekrut aur digital rediyograafi ka istemaal ho raha hai, haalaanki audyogik rediyograafi prakriyaaon mein abhi bhi film praudyogiki ka kaafi istemaal hota hai (jaise - velded seems ka nireekshan karne ke liye). fotograafik plate jyaadaatar itihaas ki baatein hain aur unki jagah lene waali "inteinsifaaing screen" bhi itihaas mein feeki padti ja rahi hai. dhaatu chaandi (pehle rediyograafik aur fotograafik udyogon ke liye aavashyak tha) ek gair naveekaraneeya sansaadhan hai. is prakaar yeh laabhadaayak hai ki ise ab digital (deeaar/DR) aur kanpyootareekrut (seeaar/CR) praudyogiki dvaara pratisthaapit kiya ja raha hai. jahaan fotograafik filmon ke liye geeli prasanskaran suvidhaaon ki jaroorat padti thi, vaheen in nai praudyogikiyon ke liye yeh sab jaroori naheen hai. in nai takaneekon ke istemaal se chitron ke digital sangraheekaran se bhi bhandaaran sthaan ki bachat hoti hai.

choonki fotograafik plate, ex-re ke prati samvedansheel hote hain, at: ve chitr ko record karne ka ek saadhan pradaan karte hain, lekin unhein bahut jyaada ex-re anaavaran (rogi ke liye) ki bhi jaroorat padti hai, isliye inteinsifaaing screen ko taiyaar kiya gaya. ve rogi ko bahut kam maatra pradaan karte hain, kyonki screen, ex-re praapt karti hai aur iski teevrata badhaati hai, taaki ise inteinsifaaing screen ke aage rakhe gaye film par record kiya ja sake.

rogi ke jis ang se ex-re ko pravaahit karna hai, use ex-re srot aur imej riseptar ke beech rakha jaata hai jisse shareer ke keval usi vishesh ang ki aatanrik sanrachana ki chhaaya utpann ho sake. ye ex-re aanshik roop se asthi jaise ghane ootakon dvaara avarooddh ("ksheen") ho jaati hain aur mrudu ootakon se badi aasaani se gujar jaati hain. jin-jin kshetron se hokar ye ex-re gujarati hain, ve kshetr develop karne par gahra rang dhaaran kar lete hain, jisse asthiyaan aas-paas ke ootakon ki tulana mein thodi halke rang ki dikhaai padti hain.

beriym ya aayodeen yukt vipreet yaugikon, jo rediyopek hote hain, ko jatharaantr path (beriym) mein antargrahit kiya ja sakta hai ya in vaahiniyon ko ujaagar karne ke liye dhamani ya shiraaon mein pravisht kiya ja sakta hai. in vipreet yaugikon mein uchch paramaanvik sankhyaayukt tatv hote hain jo (asthi ki tarah) anivaarya roop se ex-re ko avarooddh kar dete hain aur isliye ek baar khokhale ang ya vaahini ko aur adhik aasaani se dekha ja sakta hai. ek gair vishaile vipreet padaarth ki khoj mein, kai prakaar ke uchch parmaanu sankhya vaale tatvon ka moolyaankan kiya jaata tha. udaaharanaarth, hamaare poorvajon ne pehli baar jis niroopan ka prayog kiya, vah chaak tha aur iska prayog ek shav ki nalikaaon par kiya gaya tha. durbhaagya se, kuchh chune hue tatv haanikaarak saabit hue - udaaharan ke liye, thoriym ka prayog niroopan ke ek maadhyam (thorotraast) ke roop mein kiya jaata tha - jo kuchh maamalon mein vishaila ban gaya (thoriym ke vishaile prabhaav ki vajah se chot aur kabhi-kabhi maut bhi ho jaati thi). aadhunik niroopan padaarth mein sudhaar hua hai aur jabki yeh nirdhaarit karne ka koi tareeka naheen hai ki kismein niroopan ke prati sanvedanasheelata hai, "elarji jaisi pratikriyaaon" ki ghatna bahut kam hai. (is jokhim ki tulana penisilin ke saath jude jokhim se ki ja sakti hai.[krupaya uddharan jodein])

fotostimulebal fausfar (peeesapi)

ek uttarottar badhta hua aam tareeka fotostimuleted lyoominesens (peeesael (PSL)) ka istemaal hai jiski shuruaat 1980 ke dashak mein fuji (Fuji) ne ki thi. aadhunik aspataalon mein fotograafik plate ki jagah fotostimulebal fausfar plate ka istemaal kiya jaata hai. plate par ex-re pravaahit karne ke baad, fausfar padaarth ke utsaahit ilektraun tab tak kristal jaalak ke "rang kendron" mein "fanse" rahate hain jab tak plate ki satah se gujarane vaale lejr beam dvaara unhein uttejit naheen kar diya jaata. lejr uttejana ke dauraan mukt prakaash ko ek fotomalteeplaayar tube dvaara ikaththa kar liya jaata hai aur parinaami sanket ko computer praudyogiki dvaara ek digital imej mein parivrtit kar diya jaata hai, jo is prakriya ko iska aam naam, kanpyootareekrut rediyograafi, pradaan karta hai (jise digital rediyograafi ke roop mein bhi sandarbhit kiya jaata hai). peeesapi (PSP) plate ko fir se istemaal kiya ja sakta hai, aur unhein istemaal karne ke liye maujooda ex-re upakaran mein koi sanshodhan karne ki zaroorat naheen hoti.

geejar kaauntar (rediyosakriyta pradarshit karne wala yantr)

praarambh mein, sabse aam pata lagaane vaale tareeke gaison ke aayaneekaran par aadhaarit the, jaise ki geejar-mular kaauntar mein: ek seeld vaulyoom, aam taur par ek silindar, jiske saath ek abhrak, bahulak ya patali dhaatvik khidki mein gas, belanaakaar kaithod aur ek taar enod hota hai; kaithod aur enod ke beech uchch voltej pravaahit kiya jaata hai. jab ek ex-re fotaun silindar mein pravesh karti hai, to yeh gair ka aayaneekaran karti hai aur aayanon va ilektraunon ka nirmaan karti hai. is prakriya mein ilektraun, enod ki taraf teji se badhte hain, jiski vajah se unke prakshepavakr ke saath aage chalakar aayaneekaran hota hai. taaunsaend aivelainch (Townsend avalanche) ke naam se jaane jaani waali is prakriya ka pata ek aakasmik dhaara ke roop mein lagaaya jaata hai jise ek "ginti" ya "ghatna" kaha jaata hai.

oorja varnakram ki jaankaari praapt karne ke liye, vibhinn fotaun ko alag karne ke liye sabse pehle ek vivrtaneeya kristal ka istemaal kiya ja sakta hai. is vidhi ko vevaleinth disparsiv ex-re spektroskopi (dablyoodeeeks/WDX ya dablyoodeees/WDS) kaha jaata hai. failaanevaale tatvon ke saath aksar sthiti ke prati samvedansheel ditektaron ka istemaal kiya jaata hai. svaabhaavik roop se oorja ka samaadhaan karne vaale anya pehchaan upakaranon, jaise - poorvacharchit samaanupaatik kaauntar, ka istemaal kiya ja sakta hai. donon mein se kisi bhi maamale mein, upayukt pals-processing (MCA/MCA) upakaranon ka upayog, baad ke vishleshan ke liye digital spektra ke nirmaan ki anumati deta hai.

kai anuprayogon ke liye, kaauntar ko seal naheen kiya jaata hai lekin inmein lagaataar shuddh gas bhari jaati hai, is prakaar sandooshan ya gas kshaya ki samasya kam ho jaati hai. inhein "pravaah kaauntar" kaha jaata hai.

sintiletar

sodiym aayodaaid (NaI) jaise kuchh padaarth ek ex-re fotaun ko ek drushyamaan fotaun mein "badal" sakte hain; ek fotomalteeplaayar jodkar ek electronic ditektar ka nirmaan kiya ja sakta hai. in ditektaron ko "sintiletar", filmaskreen ya "sintileshan kaauntar" kehte hain. inke upayog ka mukhya laabh yeh hai ki rogi par ex-re ki bahut kam maatra pravaahit karne par bhi ek paryaapt chitr praapt kiya ja sakta hai.

chhavi teevreekaran

ex re ke dauraan kolaikaaistaikataumi

ek ex-re imej inteinsifaayar ke istemaal se praapt pratideeptidrshan ke istemaal se khokhale angon (jaise - chhoti ya badi ant ka beriym eneema) ke vipreet adhyayanon ya enjiyograafi jaisi "vaastavik-jeevan" prakriyaaon mein bhi ex-re ka istemaal kiya jaata hai. enjiyoplaasti, dhamaneeya tantr ka chikitseeya hastakshep, sambhaavit roop se ilaaj yogya ghaavon ki pehchaan karne ke liye bahut jyaada ex-re-samvedi niroopan par bharosa karte hain.

daayarekt semeekandaktar ditektar

1970 ke dashak ke baad se, nae semeekandaktar ditektaron ko viksit kiya gaya hai (lithiym yukt silikaun ya jarmeniym, SI (elaaai)/Si (Li) ya jeei (elaaai)/Ge(Li)). ex-re ke fotaun ko ardhachaalak mein ilektraun-chhidr jode mein badal diya jaata hai aur ex-re ka pata lagaane ke liye ikaththa kiya jaata hai. jab taapamaan paryaapt roop se kam ho jaata hai (ditektar ko peltiyr prabhaav dvaara ya isse bhi thande taral naaitrojan dvaara thanda kiya jaata hai), tab ex-re oorja varnakram ka pratyaksh nirdhaaran karna sambhav hota hai; is vidhi ko enarji disparsiv ex-re spektroskopi (ideeeks/EDX ya ideees/EDS) kaha jaata hai; iska istemaal aksar chhote ex-re pratideepti spektromeetar mein kiya jaata hai. in ditektaron ko kabhi-kabhi "saulid state ditektar" bhi kaha jaata hai. kaidamiym telyooraaid (CdTe) aadhaarit ditektaron aur jasta ke mishran se taiyaar mishr dhaatu, kaidamiym jasta telyooraaid, ki sanvedanasheelata bahut badh jaati hai jo ex-re ki kam maatra ka istemaal karne ki anumati pradaan karti hai.

chikitseeya chitran (medical imejing) mein vyaavahaarik anuprayog ki shuruaat 1990 ke dashak mein hui thi. vartamaan mein maimograafi aur seene ki rediyograafi ke liye vaanijyik vishaal kshetr ke flait panel ex-re ditektaron mein aakaaraheen seleniym ka istemaal kiya jaata hai. vartamaan anusandhaan aur vikaas, piksel ditektaron ke ird-gird kendrit hai, jaise - sarn (CERN) ka oorja sankalpak medipiks ditektar.

dhyaan dein: ek ex-re beam mein rakhane par ek maanak ardhachaalak daayod, jaise - 1N4007 vidyut-pravaah ki bahut thodi maatra utpann karega. chikitseeya chitran (medical imejing) service karmiyon dvaara ek baar istemaal kiya gaya ek pareekshan upakaran ek chhota sa project box tha jismein is tarah ke kai daayod shrrunkhalaabaddh roop mein nihit the, jise ek sheegra nidaan ke roop mein ek osiloskop se joda ja sakta tha.

paaramparik ardhachaalak sanrachana se utpann silikaun drift ditektar (esadeedi (SDD)) ab ek laagat prabhaavi aur uchch sankalpak shakti vikirn maap pradaan karte hain. SI (elaaai)/Si (Li) jaise paaramparik ex-re ditektaron ke vipreet, inhein taral naaitrojan se thanda karne ki jaroorat naheen padti hai.

sintiletar plas semeekandaktar ditektar (inadaayarekt ditekshan)

vishaal ardhachaalak saarani ditektaron ke aagaman se ex-re se drushya prakaash mein badalne ke liye sintiletar screen ka istemaal karke ditektar sistamon ko design karna sambhav ho gaya hai jise tab ek saarani ditektar mein vidyuteeya sanketon mein badal diya jaata hai. aajkal chikitsa, dant chikitsa, pashu chikitsa aur audyogik anuprayogon mein apratyaksh flat panel ditektaron (efapeedi/FPD) ka bade paimaane par istemaal ho raha hai.

saarani praudyogiki, kai flait panel disple mein istemaal hone vaale aakaaraheen silikaun teeefati (TFT) saaraniyon ka ek bhinnaroop hai jaisa computer laptop mein hota hai. saarani mein silikaun ki ek patali parat se dhanki hui kaanch ki ek chaadar hoti hai jo ek aakaaraheen ya avyavasthit sthiti mein hoti hai. ek sookshm star par, silikaun ko ek graaf kaagaj ke ek patrak par grid ki tarah, bahut jyaada kramabaddh saarani mein vyavasthit laakhon traanjistaron ke saath ankit kiya jaata hai. inmein se pratyek thin film traanjistar (teeefati/TFT) ko ek prakaash-avashoshak fotodaayod ke saath sanlagn kiya jaata hai jisse ek akele piksel (chitr tatv) ka nirmaan hota hai. fotodaayod par prahaar karne vaale fotaun, vidyut aavesh ke do vaahakon mein roopaantarit ho jaate hain, jinhein ilektraun-chhidr yugm kaha jaata hai. choonki utpann aavesh vaahakon ki sankhya aane vaale prakaash fotaun ki teevrata ke saath badalti jaaegi, at: ek vidyuteeya paddhati ka nirmaan hota hai jo teji se ek voltej mein badal sakta hai aur uske baad ek digital sanket mein badal sakta hai, jise ek computer dvaara ek digital chitr utpann karne ke liye roopaantarit kiya jaata hai. haalaanki silikaun mein utkrusht electronic gun hote hain, lekin fir bhi yeh vishesh roop se ex-re ke fotaun ka ek achha avashoshak naheen hai. isi vajah se, ex-re sabse pehle gaidoliniym okseesalfaaid ya seejiym aayodaaid jaise padaarthon se bane sintiletar par girti hain. sintiletar, ex-re ko avashoshit kar unhein drushya prakaash fotaun mein badal deta hai jo uske baad fotodaayod saarani par se gujarata hai.

maanav aankh ke liye darshaneeyata

aam taur par maanav aankh ke liye adrushya maani jaane waali ex-re ko vishesh paristhitiyon mein dekha ja sakta hai.[18] rauntagan ke 1895 ke yugaantarakaari shodh-patra ke kuchh samay baad kiye gaye ek prayog mein braades ne jaankaari di ki andhakaar anukoolan kar lene aur apni aankh ko ek ex-re nalika ke paas rakhane par, unhonne ek dhundhali "neeli-dhoosar" chamak dekhi, jo swayam aankh se hi utpann hui lagti thi.[19] yeh sunane par rauntagan ne apni record pustakon ki sameeksha ki aur paaya ki unhonne is prabhaav ko dekha tha. rauntagan ne isi tarah ki ek neeli chamak dekhi thi, jo svat: aankh se hi niklati hui prateet ho rahi thi, lekin keval ek prakaar ki nali ka istemaal karne par is prabhaav ko dekhne ki vajah se unhonne apne is avlokan ko galat maan liya. baad mein unhein ehsaas hua ki is prabhaav ko utpann karne waali nali ekamaatr aisi nali thi jismein is chamak ko spasht roop se dikhaai dene laayak banaane ki kaafi kshamata thi aur uske baad prayog ko tatkaal doharaae jaane ki sambhaavana thi. ex-re, vaastav mein andhakaar-anukoolit nagn aankh dvaara dhundhale roop mein dikhaai de sakti hain, is gyaan ko aaj ke daur mein kaafi had tak bhulaaya ja chuka hai; aisa shaayad us kriya ko na doharaane ki ichha ki vajah se ho sakta hai jis kriya ko ab aayanasheel vikirn ke saath ek betahaasha khatarnaak aur sanbhavat: haanikaarak prayog ke roop mein dekha jaata tha. aankh mein drushyata ko utpann karne waali sateek vidhi gyaat naheen hai: aisa paaramparik sansoochan (retina mein raudopsin ke anuon ki uttejana), retinl tantrika koshikaaon ki pratyaksh uttejana, ya gaunat: utpann drushya prakaash ke paaramparik retinl sansoochan ke saath netragolak mein udaaharanat: fausfareseins ke ex-re pravesh ke maadhyam se dviteeyak sansoochan ki vajah se ho sakta hai.

haalaanki ex-re ko anya prakaar se naheen dekha sakta hai, lekin yadi ex-re punj ki teevrata kaafi adhik ho to vaayu ke anuon ke aayaneekaran ko dekha ja sakta hai. iesaaaraef (ESRF) ke aaidee11 (ID11) ke viglar ki punjarekha, aisi hi uchch teevrata ka ek udaaharan hai.[20]

chikitseeya upayog

pairaanaasal sinyusej ke ex-re ki chhavi, paarshv prakshepan
chitr:Brain CT scan.jpg
head seeti scan (anuprasth vimaan) slaais - ex-re ka ek aadhunik aavedan

ex-re asthiyon ki sanrachanaaon ki pehchaan kar sakti hain, rauntagan ke is khoj ke baad se chikitseeya chitran (medical imejing) mein inka istemaal karne ke liye ex-re ka vikaas kiya gaya hai, is vishay par unke praathamik shodh-patra ke ek maheene ke bheetar iska istemaal kiya gaya tha.[21] rediyolauji, chikitsa ka ek vishesh kshetr hai. rediyolaujist, naidaanik chitran (daayagnostik imejing) ke liye rediyograafi aur anya takaneekon ka istemaal karte hain. yeh shaayad ex-re praudyogiki ka sabse aam upayog hai.

ye ex-re vishesh roop se kankaal tantr ki vikruti ka pata lagaane mein kaafi upayogi hain lekin mrudu ootak mein kuchh rogi prakriyaaon ka pata lagaane ke liye bhi ye upayogi hoti hain. kuchh ullekhaneeya udaaharan hain - seene ka bahut aam ex-re, jiska istemaal nimoniya, fefadon ke Cancer ya fuffuseeya shof jaise fefadon ke rogon ki pehchaan karne ke liye kiya ja sakta hai; aur pet ka ex-re, jo aant avarodh, mukt vaayu (aant vedhan) aur mukt taral (jalodar mein) ka pata laga sakta hai. ex-re ka istemaal aksar (lekin hamesha naheen) dikhaai dene yogya gurde ki pathariyon aur pittapathariyon (jo shaayad hi kabhi rediyopek hote hain) jaisi vikrutiyon ka pata lagaane ke liye bhi kiya ja sakta hai. paramparaagat saadhaaran ex-re, mastishk ya maansapeshi jaise mrudu ootakon ki chhavi lene mein bahut kam upayogi hoti hain. mrudu ootakon ki chhavi lene ke vikalp - kanpyootareekrut aksheeya tomograafi (kait (CAT) ya seeti (CT) skaining)[22], chumbakeeya anunaad chitran (emaaaraaai/MRI) ya altraasaaund hain. baad vaale do vikalp, aayanasheel vikirn ke liye vyakti ke adheen naheen hain. saadhaaran ex-re aur seeti (CT) scan ke alaava, chikitsak ek ex-re pareekshan paddhati ke roop mein pratideeptidrshan ka upayog karte hain. is vidhi ke antargat aksar dava ke roop mein ek chikitseeya niroopan padaarth (ant:shira, munh ya gudaavasti ke maadhyam se) diya jaata hai. udaaharanon mein kaardiyk kaithetaraaijeshan (parihrud dhamani avarodh ki jaanch) aur beriym svaalo (graasanali ke vikaaron ki jaanch) shaamil hain.

2005 ke baad se ameriki sarkaar ne ex-re ko ek kainsarajanak ke roop mein soocheebaddh kiya hai.[23]. ek ilaaj ke roop mein ex-re ke upayog ko rediyotherapi ke naam se jaana jaata hai aur Cancer ke prabandhan (upashaman sahit) ke liye iska bade paimaane par istemaal kiya jaata hai; iske liye keval chitran ki tulana mein kaheen adhik vikirn oorja ki jaroorat padti hai.

chikitseeya naidaanik ex-re ke jokhim

chitr:Preg xray.jpg
ek garbhavati mahila ka ex-re.

adhyayan ke aadhaar par, ex-re, jaanch karne ka ek apekshaakrut surakshit tareeka hai aur iska vikirn anaavaran ya jokhim apekshaakrut kam hai. haalaanki, prayogaatmak aur mahaamaari vigyaan ke aankade is prastaav ka samarthan naheen karte hain ki vikirn ki ek seema rekha waali maatra se neeche Cancer ka jyaada khatra naheen rahata hai.[24] naidaanik ex-re ka parimaan, maanav-nirmit aur vishvavyaapi praakrutik sansaadhanon ke kul vaarshik vikirn anaavaran ka 14% hai.[25] anumaan hai ki 75 varsh ki aayu tak ke logon mein atirikt vikirn se Cancer hone ke sanchayi jokhim mein 0.6-1.8% ki vruddhi hogi.[26] avashoshit vikirn ki maatra, ex-re pareekshan ke prakaar aur usamein bhaag lene vaale shareer ke ang par nirbhar karti hai.[27] seeti (CT) aur pratideeptidrshan, saadhaaran ex-re ka istemaal karne ke bajaay vikirn ki atyadhik maatra ko aavashyak bana dete hain.

vardhit jokhim ko pariprekshya mein rakhane ke liye, seene ka ek saamaanya ex-re ya dant chikitseeya ex-re, prushthabhoomi vikirn se ek samaan maatra ke liye ek vyakti ka anaavaran karega jiske prati ham 10 dinon ki samayaavadhi mein pratidin anaavrut (sthaan ke aadhaar par) hote hain.[28] aisi pratyek ex-re sampoorn jeevan-kaal mein Cancer ke jokhim mein 1 prati 1,000,000 se bhi kam ki vruddhi karegi. ek udar ya seene ka seeti (CT), prushthabhoomi vikirn ke 2-3 varshon ke baraabar hoga, jo 1 prati 10,000 aur 1 prati 1,000 ke beech jeevanaparyant Cancer jokhim mein vruddhi karega.[28] ye sankhya hamaare jeevanakaal ke dauraan kisi bhi Cancer ke viksit hone ki lagbhag 40% sambhaavana ki tulana mein bahut kam hai.[29]

naidaanik ex-re ke prati anaavrut pita ke bachchon mein iske hone ki bahut jyaada sambhaavana rahati hai jo lyookemiya ke sampark mein aate hain, khaas taur par yadi anaavaran garbhaadhaan ke kaafi kareeb ho ya nichle gaistrointestaainal (jeeaai/GI) path ya nichle udar ka do ya do se adhik ex-re shaamil ho.[30] vikirn ka khatra ajanme bachchon mein jyaada hota hai, isliye garbhavati rogiyon mein, jaanch (ex-re) ke laabhon ko ajanme bachchon ko hone vaale sambhaavit khataron ke saath santulit kiya jaana chaahiye.[31][32] America mein, prati varsh lagbhag 62,000,000 seeti (CT) scan kiye jaate hain, jismein se bachchon par 4,000,000 se jyaada scan kiye jaate hain.[27] anaavashyak ex-re (khaas taur par seeti (CT) scan) se bachane se vikirn ki maatra aur Cancer se jude kisi bhi khatre mein kami aaegi.[33]

ex-re se bachaav

uchch ghanatv (11340 kilogram prati ghan meter), rokane ki shakti, sthaapan mein aasaani aur kam laagat ki vajah se seesa, ex-re ke khilaaf sabse aam kavach hai. padaarth mein ex-re jaise ek uchch oorja fotaun ki adhiktam seema anant hoti hai; fotaun dvaara paaragamit padaarth mein pratyek sthaan par, ant:kriya ki sambhaavana rahati hai. is prakaar bahut jyaada doori rahane par ant:kriya ki bahut kam sambhaavana rahati hai. isliye fotaun punj ka kavach ghaataankeeya hota hai (aur saath mein ksheenan lanbaai, padaarth ki vikirn lambaai ke bahut kareeb hoti hai); kavach ki motaai ko doguna karne se kavach ka prabhaav apne varg ke baraabar ho jaaega.

sekand intaranaishanal kaaaingres of rediyolauji ki sifaarishon se, nimnalikhit taalika se ex-re ki oorja ke kaarya mein kaanch ke kavach ki anushansit motaai ka pata kahalata hai.[34]

sabse adhik voltej par utpann hone waali ex-re ka parimaan
jo nimn se adhik naheen hai		 seese ki nyoonatam
motaai
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100 kevi 1.5 mimi
125 kevi 2.0 mimi
150 kevi 2.5 mimi
175 kevi 3.0 mimi
200 kevi 4.0 mimi
225 kevi 5.0 mimi
300 kevi 9.0 mimi
400 kevi 15.0 mimi
500 kevi 22.0 mimi
600 kevi 34.0 mimi
900 kevi 51.0 mimi

anya upayog

pratyek bindu, naamak ek pratibinb, rachanaatmak hastakshep se bikhre ex-re ek kristal se gujar raha tha. deta kristaleeya sanrachana ka nirdhaaran kiya ja sakta hai.

ex-re ke anya ullekhaneeya upayogon mein shaamil hain

  • ex-re kristalograafi jismein ek kristal ke anuon ke bilkul paas-paas sthit jaalak ke svaroop ko prakat karne ke liye sabse pehle us jaalak ke maadhyam se ex-re ke vivrtan se utpann paddhati ko record kiya jaata hai aur uske baad usaka vishleshan kiya jaata hai. DNA (DNA) ki dohari pechadaar sanrachana ki khoj karne ke liye rojaalind Franklin ne faaibar vivrtan naamak ek sambandhit takaneek ka istemaal kiya tha.[35]
  • ex-re khagol vigyaan, jo khagol vigyaan ki ek avalokanamoolak shaakha hai, jo khagoleeya vastuon se ex-re utsarjan ke adhyayan se sambandhit hai.
  • ex-re sookshmadarsheeya vishleshan, jo bahut chhoti-chhoti vastuon ke chitr utpann karne ke liye mrudu ex-re patti mein vidyut chumbakeeya vikirn ka istemaal karta hai.
  • ex-re pratideepti, yeh ek aisi takaneek hai jismein ek namoone ke antargat ex-re ko utpann kiya jaata hai aur unki pehchaan ki jaati hai. namoone ki sanrachana ki pehchaan karne ke liye ex-re ki bahirgaami oorja ka istemaal kiya ja sakta hai.
  • audyogik rediyograafi mein audyogik purjon, khaas taur par velds, ke nireekshan ke liye ex-re ka istemaal hota hai.
  • peinting ke dauraan ya baad mein sanrakshanakartaaon dvaara andaradrauing aur peintimeinti ya parivrtanon ko prakat karne ke liye peinting ya chitrakalaaon ka aksar ex-re nikaala jaata hai. shvet seese jaise kuchh rang ex-re dvaara nirmit chitron mein achhi tarah dikhaai dete hain
  • vimaan mein saamaanon ko laadne se pehle suraksha sambandhi khataron se bachane ke liye saamaanon ke androoni bhaagon ka nireekshan karne ke liye havaai addon ke suraksha saamaan skainaron mein ex-re ka istemaal hota hai.
  • desh ki seemaaon par truckon ke androoni bhaagon ka nireekshan karne ke liye seema suraksha truck skainaron mein ex-re ka istemaal hota hai.
  • ex-re faain Art fotograafi
  • maarkaron ke aaropan ke aadhaar par asthiyon ki gatividhi ka pata lagaane ke liye rauntagan steeriyofotograametri ka istemaal kiya jaata hai.
  • ex-re fotoilektraun spektroskopi, ek raasaayanik vishleshan takaneek hai jo prakaash vidyuteeya prabhaav par nirbhar karti hai, jo aam taur par satah vigyaan mein kaaryarat hai.
Peter dajaale dvaara needalefish ke ex-re Art fotograafi

itihaas

khoj

ex-re ke khojakarta ka shreya aam taur par jarman bhautikshaastri vilhem rauntagan ko diya jaata hai kyonki unhonne hi sabse pehle vyavasthit roop mein inka adhyayan kiya tha, haalaanki inke prabhaavon ko dekhne vaale vah pehle vyakti naheen hain. "ex-re" ke roop mein unka naamakaran bhi unhonne hi kiya hai, haalaanki unki khoj ke baad kai dashakon tak kuchh log unhein "rauntagan kirnon" ke roop mein sandarbhit karte the.

pehli baar naliyon mein nirmit kaithod kirnon arthaat oorjaavaan ilektraun punjon ki chhaanabeen karne vaale vaigyaaniko ne 1875 ke aaspaas krooks nali naamak prayogaatmak visrjan naliyon se ex-re ko nikalte hue dekha tha. krooks naliyaan, kuchh kilovolt aur 100 kevi (kV) ke beech kaheen bhi ek uchch deesi (DC) voltej dvaara nali mein avashisht hava ke aayaneekaran ke dvaara mukt ilektraunon ka nirmaan karti theen. yeh voltej kaafi uchch veg se kaithod se aate hue ilektraunon ki gati ko badha dete the jisse ve nali ki kaanch ki deevaar ya enod se takaraate samay ex-re ka nirmaan karte the. kai aaranbhik krooks naliyaan beshak ex-re ko vikeern karti theen, kyonki aaranbhik shodhakartaaon ne un prabhaavon ko dekha tha jinka shreya unhein diya ja sakta tha, jiska vistrut vivran neeche diya gaya hai. vilhem rauntagan ne hi sabse pehle 1895 mein unka vyavasthit roop se adhyayan kiya tha.[36]

ivaan pulyui, William krooks, johaan vilhem hitorf, yoojen goldasteen, henarich hartj, Phillip lenaard, harman vaun helmaholtj, nikola tesla, Thomas edisn, Charles glovar baarkla, maiks vaun laue aur vilhem kaunaraid rauntagan ki ginti ex-re ke pramukh aaranbhik shodhakartaaon mein ki jaati hai.

johaan hitorf

krooks nali ke ek sah-aavishkaarak aur aaranbhik shodhakarta ke roop mein jaane jaane vaale jarman bhautikshaastri johaan hitorf (1824–1914) ne jab nali ke paas anaavrut fotograafik pleton ko rakha, tab unhonne dekha ki chhaaya dvaara unamein se kuchh pleton mein daraarein pad gain, haalaanki unhonne is prabhaav ki chhaanabeen naheen ki.

ivaan pulyui

Ukraine mein janme aur university of viyena mein prayogaatmak bhautiki ke vyaakhyaata ke roop mein kaaryarat pulyui ne vaikyoom dischaarj tube ke gunon ki jaanch karne ke liye unke anek dijaain taiyaar kiye.[37] praag pauleetekneek mein professor ke pad par hui niyukti ke baad bhi unhonne apna kaarya jaari rakha aur 1886 mein unhonne dekha ki naliyon se nikalne vaale padaarthon ke saamane aane par seeld fotograafik plets Dirk ho gaye. 1896 ke aaranbhik daur mein, rauntagan dvaara apni pehli ex-re tasveer prakaashit karne ke bas kuchh saptaah baad, pulyui ne peris aur landan ki patrikaaon mein uchch-gunavatta vaale ex-re chitron ko prakaashit kiya.[37] haalaanki pulyui ne varsh 1873 se 1875 tak straasabarg vishvavidyaalaya mein rauntagan ke saath adhyayan kiya tha, lekin unke jeevani lekhak gaaida (1997) ka daava hai ki unka paravarti shodh svatantr roop se kiya gaya tha.[37]

nikola tesla

April 1887 mein, nikola tesla ne uchch voltej aur khud design ki gayi naliyon ke saath-saath krooks naliyon ka upayog karke ex-re ki jaanch karni shuroo ki. unke takaneeki prakaashanon se is baat ka sanket milta hai ki unhonne ek vishesh ekal ilektrod ex-re nali ka aavishkaar aur vikaas kiya tha[38][39] jo anya ex-re naliyon se alag thi jinmein koi lakshya ilektrod naheen hota tha. tesla ke upakaran ke peechhe ke siddhaant ko bremsastraulang prakriya ke naam se jaana jaata hai, jismein padaarth se hote hue aaveshit kanon (jaise - ilektraun) ke gujarane par ek uchch-oorja dviteeyak ex-re utsarjan ki utpatti hoti hai. 1892 tak tesla ne aise kai prayog kiye, lekin unhonne in utsarjanon ko vargeekrut naheen kiya jinhein baad mein ex-re ke naam se jaana gaya. tesla ne is ghatna ko "adrushya" prakaar ki vikirn oorja ke roop mein saamaanyeekrut kiya.[40][41] tesla ne New York aikadami of saainses ke saamane apne 1897 ke ex-re vyaakhyaan mein vibhinn prayogon ke vishay mein apne tareekon ke tathyon ka varnan kiya.[42] iske alaava isi vyaakhyaan mein tesla ne ex-re upakaran ke nirmaan aur surakshit sanchaalan ki vidhi ka varnan kiya. vaikyoom uchch kshetr utsarjan dvaara unke ex-re prayog ke maadhyam se unhonne ex-re anaavaran se jude jaivik khataron se vaigyaanik samudaaya ko sachet bhi kiya.[43]

farnaando sainaford

stainaford vishvavidyaalaya ke bhautiki ke buniyaadi profesar farnaando sainaford (1854–1948) ne 1891 mein ex-re ko utpann kiya aur unka pata lagaaya. 1886 se 1888 tak unhonne barlin ki harman helmaholtj prayogashaala mein adhyayan kiya tha, jahaan ve vaikyoom naliyon mein utpann hone vaale kaithod kirnon se parichit hue jab alag-alag ilektrod se ek voltej pravaahit kiya gaya jaisa ki henarich hartj aur Phillip lenaard ne iske pehle iska adhyayan kiya tha. the fijikl review ko 6 January 1893 ko likhe gaye unke patra ko vidhivt prakaashit kiya gaya (jismein unhonne "ilektrik fotograafi" ke roop mein apni khoj ka varnan kiya tha) aur sain Francisco igjaimanar mein without leins or laait, fotograafs teken vith plate end objekt in daarkanes (Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness) naamak ek lekh chhapa gaya.[44]

Phillip lenaard

henarich hartj ka Phillip lenaard naamak ek chhaatr yeh dekhna chaahata tha ki kaithod kirnein, hava mein krooks nali se hokar gujar sakti hain ya naheen. usane ek krooks nali (jise baad mein "lenaard nali" ke naam se jaana gaya) ka nirmaan kiya jiske ant mein ek "khidki" thi jo patali elyoomeeniym se bani hui thi jiske saamane ka hissa kaithod ki taraf tha taaki kaithod kirnein isse takara sake.[45] unhonne dekha ki usamein se kuchh nikla jiske fotograafik pleton ke prati anaavrut ki vajah se pratideepti utpann hui. unhonne vibhinn padaarthon ke maadhyam se in kirnon ki bhedan shakti ko maapa. isse yeh soochana mili hai ki inmein se kam se kam kuchh "lenaard kirnein" vaastav mein ex-re theen.[46] harman vaun helmaholtj ne ex-re ke ganiteeya sameekaranon ko sootrabaddh kiya. rauntagan ki khoj aur ghoshana se pehle unhonne ek prakeernan siddhaant ki kalpana ki. ise prakaash ke vidyut chumbakeeya siddhaant ke aadhaar par taiyaar kiya gaya tha.[47] haalaanki, unhonne vaastavik ex-re ke saath kaam naheen kiya.

vilhem rauntagan

8 November 1895 ko lenaard aur krooks naliyon ke saath prayog karte samay jarman bhautiki professor vilhem rauntagan ka saamana ex-re se hua aur unhonne in par adhyayan karna shuroo kar diya. unhonne "on A new kaaind of re: A priliminri kamyunikeshan (On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication) " naamak ek aaranbhik report taiyaar kiya aur 28 December 1895 ko unhonne is report ko vurjbarg ke fijikl-medical society patrika ko saunp diya.[48] ex-re par likha gaya yeh pehla shodh-patra tha. rauntagan ne yeh soochit karne ke liye vikirn ko "ex" ke roop mein sandarbhit kiya ki yeh ek agyaat prakaar ka vikirn tha. yeh naam isse jud gaya, haalaanki (rauntagan ki aapattiyon ke baavajood) unke kai sahayogiyon ne un kirnon ka naamakaran rauntagan kirnon ke roop mein karne ka sujhaav diya tha. unhein abhi bhi jarman sahit kai bhaashaaon mein isi tarah ke naam se sandarbhit kiya jaata hai. rauntagan ko apni khoj ke liye bhautiki mein pratham Nobel puraskaar praapt hua.

unki khoj ke vivranon ko lekar kaafi matabhed hain kyonki rauntagan apni maut ke samay apne lab nots jala diye the, lekin yeh unke jeevani lekhakon ki managadhnt kahaani ho sakti hai:[49] rauntagan, ek krooks nali aur beriym pletinosaayanaaid se peint kiye gaye ek pratideept parade ke saath kaithod kirnon ki chhaanabeen mein lage hue the jise unhonne ek kaale karbord mein lapet diya tha taaki nali se nikalne waali drushya roshani koi hastakshep na kare. unhonne lagbhag 1 meter doori par parade se ek dhundhali hari chamak niklati hui dekhi. unhein laga ki nali se aane waali kuchh adrushya kirnein kaardabord se hokar gujar rahi thi jisse parada chamakane laga tha. unhonne paaya ki ve unki mej par rakhi kitaabon aur kaagajon se hokar bhi gujar sakti thi. rauntagan ne turant vyavasthit roop se in agyaat kirnon ki chhaanabeen shuroo kar di. apni praarambhik khoj ke do maheene baad, unhonne apna shodh-patra prakaashit kiya.

rauntagan ne ek fotograafik plate par ex-re ki vajah se bani apni patni ke haath ki tasveer ko dekhkar iske chikitseeya upayog ki khoj ki. unki patni ke haath ki tasveer, ex-re ke istemaal se bani maanav shareer ke kisi bhi ang ki ab tak ki pehli tasveer thi.

Thomas edeesan

ek saraleekrut thanda paani ex-re tube ka chitr (saraleekrut/puraana)

1895 mein, Thomas edeesan ne ex-re ke saamane aane par padaarthon ke pratideept hone ki kshamata ki jaanch ki aur kailshiym tangastet ko inmein se sabse adhik prabhaavashaali padaarth paaya. March 1896 ke aaspaas, unke dvaara viksit kiya gaya fluoroskop, chikitseeya ex-re ke pareekshanon ke liye ek maanak ban gaya. fir bhi, edeesan ne kleyareins maidisn daali naamak apne ek glaasablovar ki maut ke baad 1903 ke aaspaas ex-re anusandhaan ko band kar diya. daali ko apne haathon par ex-re naliyon ka pareekshan karne ki aadat thi jiski vajah se unke haathon mein itna ghaatak Cancer ho gaya tha ki usaki jaan bachaane ke vyarth prayaas mein unke donon haath kaatne pade. New York ke bafailo mein 1901 pain-American eksapaujeeshan mein ek hatyaare ne ek .32 kailibr rivaulvar se kaafi najadeek se raashtrapati William maikakinle par do baar goli chalaai. pehli goli nikaal li gayi thi, lekin doosari goli unke pet mein kaheen ghusi rah gayi thi. maikakinle kuchh samay ke liye jeevit the aur unke anurodh par Thomas edisn "us khoi hui goli ka pata lagaane ke liye ek ex-re machine lekar bafailo pahunch gaye. yeh machine vahaan pahunch to gayi lekin iska istemaal naheen kiya ja saka ... kyonki jeevaanujanit sankraman ki vajah se hue septik ke kaaran maikakinle ki maut ho gayi thi."[50]

Frank ostin aur fraust brothers

sanyukt raajya America mein nirmit pratham chikitseeya ex-re ko pulyui ki design waali ek visrjan nali ka upayog karke praapt kiya gaya tha. rauntagan ki khoj ko padhane ke baad January 1896 mein daartamaauth college ke Frank ostin ne bhautiki prayogashaala mein sabhi visrjan naliyon ka pareekshan kiya jismein se keval pulyui nali se ex-re ki utpatti hui thi. yeh nali ke bheetar, pratideept padaarth ke dhaarit namoonon ke istemaal kiye jaane vaale abhrak ke ek tiryak "lakshya" ke pulyui ke antarveshan ka ek parinaam tha. 3 fravari 1896 ko gilmain fraust, college mein medisin ke profesar aur unke bhaai edavin fraust, bhautiki ke profesar, ne edavin dvaara kuchh saptaah pehle ek fracture ke liye ilaaj kiye gaye Eddy maikakaarthi ki kalaai ko ex-re ke saamane anaavrut kiya aur rauntagan ke kaarya mein bhi dilchaspi lene vaale hauvard laingil naamak ek sthaaneeya photographer se praapt jelaatin fotograafik pleton par tooti asthi ke parinaam chitr ko ekatr kiya.[21]

20veen sadi aur uske baad

1940 mein mahila mareej ka ex-re lete hue ek takaneeshiyn purush.is chhavi ko ex-re prakriya ke dauraan vikirn ke liye istemaal kiya gaya jise ek mithk ka tark maana gaya tha.

ex-re ke kai anuprayaagon ne turant kaafi dilchaspi paida ki. kaaryashaalaaon mein ex-re ko utpann karne ke liye krooks naliyon ke vishisht sanskaranon ka nirmaan hone laga aur lagbhag 1920 tak in pehli peedhi ke thande kaithod ya krooks ex-re naliyon ka istemaal hota raha.

krooks naliyon par nirbhar naheen raha ja sakta tha. unamein bahut kam maatra mein gas (ek si hava) rakhani padti thi kyonki poori tarah khaali nali mein dhaara pravaahit naheen hogi. haalaanki samay beetane ke saath ex-re ki vajah se kaanch mein gas ko avashoshit karne ki kshamata aa gayi jiski vajah se nali se "adhik drudh" ex-re tab tak utpann hoti rahi, jab tak ki bahut jald hi unhonne kaarya karna band naheen kar diya. hava ko bahaal karne ke liye upakaranon ke saath apekshaakrut badi aur kai baar istemaal honi vaaleenaliyaan pradaan ki gain theen, jinhein "sauftanars" ke naam se jaana jaata tha. ye aksar ek chhoti paksheeya nali ka roop dhaaran kar leteen theen, jismein abhrak ka ek chhota sa tukada hota tha: jo ek aisa padaarth hai jo apni sanrachana ke bheetar tulanaatmak roop se bahut badi maatra mein hava ko jakad leta hai. ek chhota sa vidyuteeya heetar abhrak ko garm karta tha aur iski vajah se hava ki ek chhoti si maatra mukt hoti thi, is prakaar yeh nali ki kshamata ko bahaal karta tha. haalaanki abhrak ki jeevan kaal bahut seemit tha aur bahaali prakriya ko niyantrit karna kaafi mushkil tha.

1904 mein, John embros fleming ne tharmiyonik daayod vaalv (vaikyoom tube) ka aavishkaar kiya. yeh ek garm kaithod ka istemaal karta tha jo dhaara ko ek vaikyoom mein pravaahit hone ki anumati deta tha. is vichaar ko bahut jald ex-re naliyon aur koolij naliyon ke naam se jaane jaane vaale garm kaithod ex-re naliyon mein laagoo kiya gaya jisne lagbhag 1920 tak pareshaani paida karne waali thandi kaithod naliyon ki jagah le li.

do saal baad, bhautikshaastri Charles baarkla ne pata lagaaya ki ex-re ko gaison dvaara vikhera ja sakta hai aur yeh bhi ki pratyek tatv mein ek abhilaakshanik ex-re hoti hai. unhein apni khoj ke liye bhautiki mein 1917 ka Nobel puraskaar praapt hua. maiks vaun laue, paul niping aur vaultar fredarich ne 1912 mein pehli baar kristalon dvaara ex-re ke vivrtan ko dekha tha. paul Peter evaald, William henari braig aur William Lawrence braig ke aaranbhik kaaryon ke saath is khoj ne ex-re kristalograafi ke kshetr ko janm diya. agale varsh William di. koolij ne koolij nali ka aavishkaar kiya jo ex-re ki nirantar utpatti ki anumati deti theen; is tarah ki nali ka istemaal aaj bhi kiya jaata hai.

chitr:Moon in x-rays.gif
ex-re ki pratideepti ROSAT ki chhavi aur ex-re dvaara prushthabhoomi, chandrama ki prachhaadan

chikitseeya prayojanon (vikirn chikitsa ke kshetr mein vikaas karne ke liye) ke liye ex-re ke upayog ke agradoot inglaind ke Birmingham mein rahane vaale major John hall-Edwards the. 1908 mein, ex-re tvachaashoth ke prasaar ki vajah se unhein apna baayaan haath katavaana pada tha.[51] ex-re maaikroskop ka aavishkaar 1950 ke dashak mein hua tha.

23 July 1999 ko shuroo kiye gaye chandra ex-re objrvetari ko brahmaand mein bahut hinsak prakriyaaon ke khoj ki anumati di ja rahi hai jisse ex-re ki utpatti hoti hai. drushya prakaash ke vipreet, jo brahmaand ka ek apekshaakrut sthir drushya hai, ex-re ka brahmaand asthir hai, yeh kaale vivron, gaangeya takkaron aur navataaron, nyootraun taaron se alag hote hue taaron ka darshan karaata hai jo plaajma ke paraton ka nirmaan karte hain jo tab antariksh mein visfot paida karte hain.

1980 ke dashak mein Reagan prashaasan ke stretajik difens inishiyetiv ke hisse ke roop mein ek ex-re lejr upakaran ka prastaav prastut kiya gaya, lekin is upakaran (ek tharmonyookliyr visfot dvaara sanchaalit, ek tarah ka lejr "visfotak", ya mrutyu-kiran) ke pehle aur ekamaatr pareekshan ne anirnaayak parinaam pradaan kiye. takaneeki aur raajanaitik kaaranon se sampoorn pariyojana (ex-re lejr sahit) ka vittaposhan band kar diya gaya (haalaanki baad mein alag-alag praudyogikiyon ka istemaal karke naishanal misaail difens ke roop mein dviteeya bush prashaasan dvaara ise punarjeevit kiya gaya tha).

inhein bhi dekhein

  • baikaskaitar ex-re
  • pratideeptidrshan
  • geejar yantr
  • uchch oorja ex-re
  • N-re
  • nyootraun vikirn
  • rediyograaf
  • rediyolaujik teknolaujist
  • rediyolauji
  • resonant inailaastik ex-re skaitaring (aaraaaieksaes/RIXS)
  • chhote kon ex-re bikhrane (SAXS)
  • ex-re avashoshan spektroskopi
  • ex-re khagol vidya
  • ex-re kristalograafi
  • ex-re filtar
  • ex-re peedhi
  • ex-re machine
  • ex-re maarkar
  • ex-re sookshmadarshi
  • ex-re nainoprob
  • ex-re prakaashiki
  • ex-re drushti
  • ex-re velding

nots

  1. ↑ nauvelaain, Robert. skvaayars fandaameintals of rediyolauji. Harvard university press. 5veen sanskaran. 1997. ISBN 0-674-83339-2.
  2. ↑ a aa Dendy, P. P.; B. Heaton (1999). Physics for Diagnostic Radiology. USA: CRC Press. pa॰ 12. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0750305916. http://books.google.com/?id=1BTQvsQIs4wC&pg=PA12.
  3. ↑ Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed.. USA: Chemical Rubber Co.. pa॰ 2850.
  4. ↑ Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1. USA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 2–5. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0201021161.
  5. ↑ L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003). Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis. Academic Press. pa॰ 58. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0124366031. http://books.google.com/?id=b519e10OPT0C&pg=PA58&dq=gamma+x-ray.
  6. ↑ Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan, S. D. Eidelman, T. Stroh (2005). Astroparticle Physics. Springer. pa॰ 109. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 3540253122.
  7. ↑ US National Research Council (2006). Health Risks from Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, BEIR 7 phase 2. National Academies Press. pp. 5, fig.PS–2. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 030909156X. http://books.google.com/?id=Uqj4OzBKlHwC&pg=PA5. enaseeaarapi (NCRP) ko aankade jama karte hue (vikirn suraksha ke liye ameriki raashtreeya samiti) 1987
  8. ↑ http://www.doctorspiller.com/Dental%20_X-Rays.htm aur http://www.dentalgentlecare.com/x-ray_safety.htm
  9. ↑ http://hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/NSEA/fire/trainingdocs/radem3.pdf
  10. ↑ http://www.hawkhill.com/114s.html
  11. ↑ http://www.solarstorms.org/SWChapter8.html aur http://www.powerattunements.com/x-ray.html
  12. ↑ . aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0-8493-0475-X.
  13. ↑ [21]
  14. ↑ [22]
  15. ↑ Whaites, Eric; Roderick Cawson (2002). Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 15–20. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 044307027X. http://books.google.com/?id=x6ThiifBPcsC&dq=radiography+kilovolt+x-ray+machine.
  16. ↑ Bushburg, Jerrold; Anthony Seibert, Edwin Leidholdt, John Boone (2002). The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging. USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pa॰ 116. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0683301187. http://books.google.com/?id=VZvqqaQ5DvoC&pg=PT33&dq=radiography+kerma+rem+Sievert.
  17. ↑ Emilio, Burattini; Antonella Ballerna (1994). "Preface". Biomedical Applications of Synchrotron Radiation: Proceedings of the 128th Course at the International School of Physics -Enrico Fermi- 12–22 July 1994, Varenna, Italy. IOS Press. pp. xv. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 9051992483. http://books.google.com/books?id=VEld4080nekC&pg=PA129&dq=%22synchrotron+radiation%22+x-ray+advantages&as_brr=3. abhigman tithi: 2008-11-11.
  18. ↑ Martin, Dylan (2005). "X-Ray Detection". University of Arizona Optical Sciences Center. http://www.u.arizona.edu/~dwmartin/. abhigman tithi: 2008-05-19.
  19. ↑ Frame, Paul. "Wilhelm Röantgen and the Invisible Light". Tales from the Atomic Age. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/invisiblelight.htm. abhigman tithi: 2008-05-19.
  20. ↑ Eæaements of Modern X-Ray Physics. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,. 2001. pp. 40–41. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 0-471-49858-0.
  21. ↑ a aa Spiegel, Peter K (1995). "The first clinical X-ray made in America—a100 years". American Journal of Roentgenology (Leesburg, VA: American Roentgen Ray Society) 164 (1): 241–243. PMID 7998549. ISSN: 1546-3141. http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/reprint/164/1/241.pdf.
  22. ↑ Herman, Gabor T. (2009). Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections (2nd san॰). Springer. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 978-1-85233-617-2
  23. ↑ kaarsinjan par 11veen report
  24. ↑ opatan AC (2003).1990 ke dashak mein kala ke raajya: aayanasheel vikirn ke liye maatra anukriya rishte mein lineyariti ke liye vaigyaanik aadhaar par enaseeaarapi (NCRP) ki report nan 136 helth fijiks 85:15-22
  25. ↑ parmaanu vikirn ke prabhaav par sanyukt raashtra vaigyaanik samiti. New York. sanyukt raashtra, 2000
  26. ↑ beringtan de gonjaalej A aur darbi S (2004). nidaan ex-re se Cancer ke jokhim: Britain aur 14 anya deshon ke liye anumaan. ' lainket 363: 345-351
  27. ↑ a aa brenar DJ aur hall ije (2007). pariklit tomograafi-ek badhti hui vikirn jokhim ke srot. new inglaind journal of medisin 357: 2277-2284
  28. ↑ a aa [1]|rediyolaujeekal society of North America aur America college of rediyolauji
  29. ↑ [2]|raashtreeya Cancer insteetyut: jaanapadik rog vigyaan aur samaapti parinaam (SEER) deta
  30. ↑ Xiao-Ou, Shu; et al (December 1994). "Association of paternal diagnostic X-ray exposure with risk of infant leukemia". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention (American Association for Cancer Research) 3 (8): 645. ISSN 1538-7755. PMID 7881337. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7881337.
  31. ↑ steevart, ailis M; J.dablyoo. web; bi.di. gils; di. hevit, 1956. ' "praarambhik sanchaar: bachapan mein ghaatak rog aur naidaanik kirnan in-uteron," lainset, 1956, 2:447.
  32. ↑ "Pregnant Women and Radiation Exposure". eMedicine Live online medical consultation. Medscape. 28 December 2008. http://emedicinelive.com/index.php/Women-s-Health/pregnant-women-and-radiation-exposure.html. abhigman tithi: 2009-01-16.
  33. ↑ doneli seeef (2005). anaavashyak pareekshaaon se seeti (CT) vikirn baal chikitsa maatra ke saath jude ko kam karna. American journal rauntanolauji 32: 242-244
  34. ↑ rasaayan vidya kala leed utpaad - netrutv ke liye parirkshan anuprayogon leed parirkshan sheet, 07-12-2008 ko pun:praapt
  35. ↑ Kasai, Nobutami; Masao Kakudo (2005). X-ray diffraction by macromolecules. Tokyo: Kodansha. pp. 291–2. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 3540253173.
  36. ↑ itihaas, vikaas aur nyoorosarjari aur snaayavik nidaan mein prabhaav ki ganana imejing: seeti (CT), emaaaraaai (MRI), diteeaai (DTI): prakruti presedingas dioaai: 10.1038/npre.2009.3267.5.
  37. ↑ a aa i Gaida, Roman; et al. (1997). "Ukrainian Physicist Contributes to the Discovery of X-Rays". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. http://www.meduniv.lviv.ua/oldsite/puluj.html. abhigman tithi: 2008-04-06.
  38. ↑ maurtan, William James aur edavin dablyoo haimar, ameriki takaneeki book kan., 1896. pej 68.
  39. ↑ ameriki peteint 5,14,170, inkandesant ilektrik laait, aur ameriki peteint 4,54,622, system of ilektrik laaitaning .
  40. ↑ cheni, maargaret, "tesla: main out of time". Simon aur schustar, 2001. pej 77.
  41. ↑ Thomas kaumaraford Martin (Ed.), "aavishkaar, anusandhaan aur nikola tesla ke lekhan". pej 252 "jab yeh ek boond ke roop mein aata hai, yeh drushya aur adrushya tarangon mein dikhaai deta hai. [...]". (Ed., yeh tathya spashtat: se nikola tesla dvaara 1894 ke ilektrikl engineer mein prakaashit hui hai.
  42. ↑ nikola tesla, "lenaard aur rauntagan aur upanyaas dhaara ke liye utpaadan,", 6 April 1897.
  43. ↑ cheni, maargaret, Robert uth aur jim glen, "tesla, bijli ke guru". baarns end Nobel prakaashan, 1999. pej 76. ISBN 0-7607-1005-8
  44. ↑ Wyman, Thomas (Spring 2005). "Fernando Sanford and the Discovery of X-rays". "Imprint", from the Associates of the Stanford University Libraries: 5–15.
  45. ↑ Thomson, Joseph J. (1903). The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses. USA: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–186. http://books.google.com/?id=Ryw4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138.
  46. ↑ thaumasan, 1903, prushth 185
  47. ↑ vaaiyadamains ainnaalen, vaulyoom XLVIII
  48. ↑ Stanton, Arthur (1896-01-23). "Wilhelm Conrad Röantgen On a New Kind of Rays: translation of a paper read before the Wüarzburg Physical and Medical Society, 1895" (Subscription-only access – Scholar search). Nature 53 (1369): 274–6. doi:10.1038/053274b0. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf peepi 268 aur 276 ke ek hi tarah ke mudde ko dekhein.
  49. ↑ Peters, Peter (1995). "W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of x-rays". Ch.1 Textbook of Radiology. Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/radiology/chapter01.aspx. abhigman tithi: 2008-05-05.
  50. ↑ raashtreeya pustakaalaya ke chikitsa. "kya ex-re raashtrapati William maikakinle ko bacha sakta tha ?" drushyamaan saboot: forensic viyuj of the baudi http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/cases/mckinley.html
  51. ↑ [3]

sandarbh

  • naasa (NASA) ex re parichay karne ke liye godaard space flight center.

baahari links

vikimeediya kaumans par X-ray se sambandhit media hai.
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ksh-kiran ko vikshanari,
ek mukt shabdakosh mein dekhein.
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