jnyaaanameemaansa

jnyaaanameemaansa (Epistemology) darshan ki ek shaakha hai. jnyaaanameemaansa ne aadhunik kaal mein vichaarakon ka dhyaan aakrusht kiya.

darshanashaastr ka dhyeya sat ke svaroop ko samajhna hai. sadiyon se vichaarak yeh khoj karte rahe hain, parantu kisi nishchit nishkarsh se ab bhi utane hi door prateet hote hain, jitna pehle the. aadhunik kaal mein dekaart (1596-1650 E) ka dhyaan aaya ki prayatn ki asafalata ka kaaran yeh hai ki daarshanik kuchh agrim kalpanaaon ko lekar chalte rahe hain. darshanashaastr ko ganit ki nishchitta tabhi praapt ho sakti hai, jab yeh kisi dhaarana ko, jo svat:siddh naheen, pramaanit kiye bina na maanein. usane vyaapak sandeh se aarambh kiya. usaki apni chetna use aisi vastu dikhaai di, jiske astitv mein sandeh hi naheen ho sakta : sandeh to apne aap chetna ka ek aakaar ya svaroop hai. is neenv par usane, apne vichaar mein, paramaatma aur srushti ke astitv ko siddh kiya. dekaart ki vivechan-vidhi nai thi, parantu poorvajon ki tarah usaka anuraag bhi tatvajnyaaan mein hi thaau.

John lauk (1632-1704 E) ne apne liye naya maarg chuna. sadiyon se sat ke vishay mein vivaad hota raha hai. pehle to yeh jaanana aavashyak hai ki hamaare gyaan ki pahuainch kahaaain tak hai. isi se ye prashn bhi jude the ki gyaan kya hai aur kaise praapt hota hai. Europe mahaadveep ke daarshanikon ne darshan ko ganit ka pratiroop dena chaaha tha, lauk ne apna dhyaan manovijnyaaan ki or fera "maanav buddhi par nibandh" ki rachana ki. yeh yugaantakaari pustak siddh hui, ise anubhavavaad ka moolaadhaar samjha jaata hai. George Berkeley (1684-1753) ne lauk ki aalochna mein "maanavajnyaaan" ke niyam likhkar anubhavavaad ko aage badhaaya aur David hyoom (1711-1776 idru) ne "maanav prakruti" mein ise charam seema tak pahuaincha diya. hyoom ke vichaaron ka vishesh mahatva yeh hai ki unhonne can't (1724-1804 idru) ke "aalochanavaad" ke liye maarg khol diya. can't ne jnyaaanameemaansa ko darshanashaastr ka keindreeya prashn bana diya. kintu pashchim mein jnyaaanameemaansa ko uchit pad prapt karne mein badi der lagi. Bhaarat mein kabhi iski upeksha hui hi naheen. Gautam ke nyaayasootron mein pehle sootr mein hi 16 vichaaravishyon ka varnan hua hai, jiske yathaarth gyaan se ni:shreyas ki praapti hoti hai. inmein pratham do vishay "pramaan" aur "prameya" hain. ye donon jnyaaanameemaansa aur jnyaeya tatv hi hain. yeh ullekhaneeya hai ki in donon mein bhi pratham sthaan "pramaan" ko diya gaya hai.

gyaan, jnyaaata aur jnyaeya ka sambandh hai. dekaart ne apne anubhav ke vishleshan se aarambh kiya, parantu manushya saamaajik praani hai, usaka anubhav shoonya mein naheen viksit hota. darshanashaastr ka itihaas vaadavivaad ki katha hai. pleto ne apna mat sanvaadon mein vyakt kiya. samvaad mein ek se adhik chetanaaon ka astitv sveekaar kiya jaata hai. jnyaaanameemaansa mein vivechan ka vishay vaiyaktik chetna naheen, apitu saamaajik chetna ban jaati hai. gyaan ka apna astitv to asandigdh hai parantu ismein nimnalikhit sveekrutiyaaain bhi nihit hoti hain-

k. gyaan se bhinn jnyaaata hai, jise gyaan hota hai. kh. gyaan ek se adhik jnyaaataaon ke sansarg ka fal hai. g. gyaan ka vishay gyaan se bhinn hai.

pratyek dhaarana satya hone ka daava karti hai. parantu meemaansa is daave ko uchit jaaainch ke bina sveekaar naheen kar sakta. ham abhi in dhaaranaaon ki pareeksha kareinge, parantu pehle gyaan ke svaroop par kuchh kehna aavashyak hai.

jnyaaanameemaansa mein pramukh prashn ye hain-

• 1. gyaan kya hai?

• 2. gyaan ki sambhaavana bhi hai ya naheen?

• 3. gyaan praapt kaise hota hai?

• 4. maanav gyaan ki seemaaeain kya hain?

gyaan ka svaroop : sammati, vishvaas aur gyaan jab ham kisi dhaarana ko sunate hain ya usaka chintan karte hain to us sabandh mein hamaari vrutti is prakaar ki hoti hai -

• ham use satya sveekaar karte hain ya use asatya samajhakar asveekaar karte hain.
• satya aur asatya mein nishchaya na kar sakein, to sveekruti asveekruti donon ko viraam mein rakhate hain. yeh sandeh ki vrutti hai.
• upanyaas padhte hue ham apne aapko kalpana ke jagat mein paate hain aur jo kuchh kaha jaata hai use ham us samay ke liye tathya maan lete hain. yeh "kaalpanik sveekruti" hai.

sveekruti ke kai star hote hain. adham star par saamayik sveekruti hai, ise sammati kehte hain. yeh sveekruti pramaanit naheen hoti, ise tyaagana pade to hamein koi virkti naheen hoti. sammati ke saath tej aur sajeevata prabal hoti hai. dhaarmik vishvaason par jamein rahane ke liye manushya har prakaar ka kasht sahan kar leta hai. vishvaas aur sammati donon vaiyaktik krutiyaaain hain, gyaan mein yeh pariseeman naheen hota. main yeh naheen kehta ki meri sanmati mein do aur do chaar hote hain, na yeh kehta hooain ki mere vishvaas ke anusaar, yadi k aur kh donon g ke baraabar hain to ek doosare ke bhi baraabar hain. ye to aise tathya hain, jinhein pratyek buddhivant praani ko avashya maanana hota hai sanmatiyo mein bhed hota hai gyaan sabke liye ek hai. gyaan mein sanmati ki aatmaparakata ka sthaan vastuparakata le leti hai.

gyaan aur jnyaaata

anubhavavaad ke anusaar, jnyaaanasaamagri ke do hi bhaag hain -- prabhaav aur unke binb. dravya ke liye inmein koi gyaan naheen. hyoom ne kaha ki jis tarah bhautik padaarth gunasamooh ke atirikt kuchh naheen, usi tarah anubhavi anubhavon ke samooh ke atirikt kuchh naheen. in donon samoohon mein ek bhed hai -- kul ke sabhi gun ek saath vidyamaan hote hain, chetan ki chetanaavasthaaeain ek doosare ke baad prakat hoti hain. chetna shreni ya pankti hai aur kisi pankti ko apne aap pankti hone ka bodh naheen ho sakta. hrudaya ki vyaakhya mein smaran shakti ke liye koi sthaan naheen; jaise William James ne kaha, anubhavavaad ko smruti maaaingani padti hai. hyoom ko jnyaaata jnyaaanasaamagri mein naheen mila; vah vahaaain mil hi naheen sakta tha. anubhavavaad ke liye prashn tha -- anubhav kya bataata hai? peechhe can't ne poochha -- anubhav banta kaise hai? anubhav anubhavi ki kriya ke bina ban hi naheen sakta.

purushabahutv

manushya saamaajik praani hai; hamaara saara jeevan aur manushyon ke saath vyateet hota hai. purushabahutv vyaapak sveekruti hai. meemaansa ke liye prashn yeh hai ki is sveekruti ki sthiti drudh vishvaas ki sthiti hai ya gyaan ki? is vishay mein svapn sandeh ka kaaran hai. svapn mein main dekhta sunata prateet hota hooain; anya manushyon ke saath sansarg bhi hota prateet hota hai. kya jaagaran aur svapn ka bhi svapn ki prateeti to naheen? ahanvaad ke anusaar saari satta bhaari kalpana hi hai. hamaara saamaajik jeevan ahanvaad ka khandan hai, parantu prashn to saamaajik jeevan ke sambandh mein hi hai -- kya yeh jeevan vishvaas maatr hi to naheen? ahanvaad ke viruddh koi aisa pramaan naheen jise akhandaneeya kah sakein. jab ham aise sandeh se grast hote hain to, jaisa hyoom ne kaha hai, thode samay ke baad ham apne aapko thaka paate hain aur hamaara dhyaan vivsh hokar duniya ki or firta hai, jismein bhautik padaarth bhi hain aur chetan praani bhi. jab buddhi kaam naheen karti, prakruti hamaari sahaayata karti hai.

pratibodh meemaansa

anubhavavaad ke anusaar saara gyaan ant mein prabhaavon aur unke chitron se banta hai. prabhaav mein gunabodh aur vastuvaad ka bhed kar sakte hain; chitr mein pratibinb aur pratyaya ka bhed hota hai. pratyek jnyaaaneindriya kisi vishesh gun ka charichya deti hai -- aaainkh roop ka, kaan shabd ka, naak gandh ka. in gunon ke samanvaya se vastujnyaaan praapt hota hai. ise pratibodh ya pratyaksh bhi kehte hain. aise bodh mein gyaan ka vishay jnyaaata ke baahar hota hai; pratibinb aur pratyaya andar hote hain. yeh baahar aur andar ka bhed kalpana maatr hai ya tathya hai, jnyaaanameemaansa mein yeh pramukh prashn raha hai. pratibodh ya pratyaksh gyaan ne jitna dhyaan aakarshit kiya hai, utana jnyaaanameemaansa mein kisi anya prashn ne naheen kiya.

saankhya darshan ke anusaar pratyaksh ke do pramukh chinh hain --

(1) pratyaksh indriya aur vishay ke sampark ka parinaam hota hai.

(2) pratyaksh mein chitt vishay ke aakaar ko grahan kar leta hai.

iska arth yeh hai ki pratyaksh gyaan kalpanaamaatr naheen hota aur ismein kisi prakaar ki bhraanti naheen hoti. yeh to spasht hi hai ki hamaare paas pratyaksh se adhik vishvast gyaan naheen, parantu prashn yeh hai ki vishyi aur vishay mein seedha sampark ho bhi sakta hai ya naheen. yadi aisa sampark hota hai, to bhraanti kaise pravisht ho jaati hai? vishyi aur vishay mein kuchh antar hota hai. is antar ki dasha hamaare bodh ko prabhaavit karti hai. jungle ke vruksh door se harenaheen deekhate, kyonki unke rang ke saath beech mein padnevaali vaayu ka rang bhi mil jaata hai. fir, hamaari indriya ki avastha bhi ek si naheen rahati, kaan ka rogi padaarthon ko peela dekhta hai. kuchh vichaarak kehte hain ki ham baahya padaarthon ko naheen dekhte, unke chitron ko dekhte hain, in chitron ke vishay mein nishchayapoorvak naheen kah sakte ki ye baahya padaarthon ke anuroop hain; yahaaain bhraanti ki sambhaavana sada bani rahati hai. vaastavavaad ke do roop hain -- saakshaataatmak vaastavavaad aur pratibinbaatmak vaastavavaad. pehle roop mein bhraanti ka astitv samasya ban jaata hai, doosare roop mein satya gyaan ka samaadhaan naheen hota.

vijnyaaanavaad andar aur baahar ke bhed ko samaapt kar deta hai. jaan lauk ke vichaaron mein hi iska beej vidyamaan tha. usane kaha ki dravya ka pratyaya aspasht hai. usane yeh bhi kaha ki bhautik padaarthon ke pradhaan gun to unamein vidyamaan hote hain, parantu apradhaan gun ve parinaam hain jo pradhaan gunon ke aaghaat se hamaare man mein vyakt hote hain. Berkeley ne kaha ki jo yuktiyaaain apradhaan gunon ke vastugat astitv ke viruddh di jaati hain, vahi pradhaan gunon ke viruddh di jaati hai. baahar kuchh hai hi naheen, uske bodh ke spasht ya aspasht hone ka prashn pratyaya ban gaya hai. indriydatt (roop, ras, gandh aadi) baahya padaarthon ke gun naheen, na hi ye maanasik avasthaaeain hain. ye jnyaaata se bhinn, uske baahar hain aur unka svatantr astitv hai. rassala ke anusaar, "indriygraahyon" ke samooh vidyamaan hain, inke kuchh ansh gruheet ho jaate hain. hamaara paribodh satya gyaan hai, parantu aanshik gyaan.

can't ne apni vikhyaat pustak "shuddh buddhi ki samaalochana" ko in shabdon ke saath aarambh kiya --

"is baat mein to sandeh hi naheen ho sakta ki hamaara saara gyaan anubhav ke saath aarambh hota hai. kyonki yeh kaise sambhav hai ki bodh shakti kuchh karne lage, sivaaya iske ki hamaari indriyon ko prabhaavit karanevaale padaarth ise yeh kshamata dein. parantu yadyapi hamaara saara gyaan anubhav ke saath aarambh hota hai, isse yeh nishkarsh naheen niklata ki saara gyaan anubhav ki hi den hai.

can't ne anubhav ki banaavat mein buddhi ke bhaagadaan par bal diya. aisa karne par bhi, usane aarambh mein kaha ki hamaara vichaar prakatanon ki duniya se pare naheen ja sakta. peechhe usane anusheelak buddhi aur vyaavahaarik buddhi mein bhed kiya aur kaha ki anusheelak buddhi gyaan deti hai, parantu yeh gyaan prakatanon ki duniya se pare hi satta hai. manushya saarabhoot roop mein naitik praani hai. neeti ki maaaingein ye hain --

• manushya ke kartavya hain, isaliye usamein kartavyapaalan ki kshamata hai; vah svaadheen hai.

• manushya ka lakshya anant hai, iski siddhi ke liye anantakaal ki aavashyakta hai. aatma amar hai.

• neeti ki maaaing yeh hai ki sadaachaar aur sukh sanyukt hon. aisa sanyog hamaare vash mein naheen, paramaatma hi aisa sanyog karne mein samarth hai; paramaatma ka astitv hai.

Bhaarat mein para vidya aur apara vidya mein bhed kiya gaya hai aur donon mein pratham ko ooaincha pad diya hai. kuchh vichaarak to apara vidya ko avidya hi kehte hain. pleto ne vishesh padaarthon ke bodh ko sammati ka pad diya aur sammati ko vidya aur avidya ke madhya mein rakha.

pratyek nirmaan satya hone ka daava karta hai. is daave ka arth kya hai?

nirnaya mein do pratyayon ya vichaaron ke sambandh ki baat kahi jaati hai. yadi yeh sambandh un padaarthon mein bhi vidyamaan hai jo un vichaaron ke mool hain, to nirnaya satya hai. satya ka yeh samaadhaan anuroopataavaad kahalaata hai. vijnyaaanavaad baahya jagat ko kalpana maatr kehta hai, iske anusaar satta mein chetanaaon aur chetan avasthaaon ke atirikt kuchh bhi naheen hai.

yadi koi nirnaya shesh gyaan se sansakt ho sakta hai, to vah satya hai. yeh avirodhavaad hai. aadhunikvaad kaal mein amareeka mein vyavahaaravaad ka prasaar hua hai. iske anusaar, jo dhaarana vyavahaar mein safal siddh hoti hai, vah satya hai. satya koi sthaayi vastu naheen, jise ham dekhte hain; yeh banta hai.

vaastav mein yahaaain do prashn hain -- (t) satya ka svaroop kya hai? (th) kisi dhaarana ke satya hone ki kasauti kya hai? anuroopataavaad pehle prashn ka uttar deta hai tatha avirodhavaad aur vyavahaaravaad doosare prashn ka.

• darshan
• tatvameemaansa
• moolyameemaansa

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles:

• Bayesian Epistemology by William Talbott.
• Epistemology by Matthias Steup.
• Evolutionary Epistemology by Michael Bradie & William Harms.
• Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science by Elizabeth Anderson.
• Naturalized Epistemology by Richard Feldman.
• Social Epistemology by Alvin Goldman.
• Virtue Epistemology by John Greco.

Other links:

• Synthese, An International Journal for Epistemology, Methodology and Philosophy of Science
• Research articles in Epistemology - PhilPapers
• What Is Epistemology? — a brief introduction to the topic by Keith DeRose.
• Certain Doubts — a group blog run by Jonathan Kvanvig, with many leading epistemologists as contributors.
• The Epistemological Lifeboat by Birger Hjøarland & Jeppe Nicolaisen (eds.)
• The Epistemology Page by Keith DeRose.
• Justified True Belief and Critical Rationalism by Mathew Toll
• Epistemology Papers a collection of Michael Huemer's.
• Epistemology Introduction, Part 1 and Part 2 by Paul Newall at the Galilean Library.
• Teaching Theory of Knowledge (1986) — Marjorie Clay (ed.), an electronic publication from The Council for Philosophical Studies.
• Epistemology: The Philosophy of Knowledge — an introduction at Groovyweb.
• Introduction to Theory of Knowledge — from PhilosophyOnline.
• The Peripatetic A practical introduction to the theory of knowledge
• Theory of Knowledge — an introduction to epistemology, exploring the various theories of knowledge, justification, and belief.
• A Theory of Knowledge by Clóavis Juarez Kemmerich, on the Social Science Research Network, 2006.
• An Introduction to Epistemology by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
• Knowledge is the eye of all - Knowledge in the Upanishads
• On a Critical Epistemology
• Language Perception and Action: Philosophical Issues