jaati (jeevavijnyaaan)

jaati (speesheej) jeevavaijnyaaanik vargeekaran ki sabse buniyaadi aur nichli shreni hai

jaati (angreji: species, speesheej) jeevon ke jeevavaijnyaaanik vargeekaran mein sabse buniyaadi aur nichli shreni hoti hai. jeevavaijnyaaanik najriye se aise jeevon ke samooh ko ek jaati bulaaya jaata hai jo ek dusare ke saath santaan utpann karne ki kshamata rakhate ho aur jinki santaan swayam aage santaan janane ki kshamata rakhati ho. udaaharan ke liye ek bhediya aur sher aapas mein bachcha paida naheen kar sakte isliye ve alag jaatiyon ke maane jaate hain. ek ghoda aur gadha aapas mein bachcha paida kar sakte hain (jise khachchar bulaaya jaata hai), lekin kyonki khachchar aage bachcha janane mein asamarth hote hain, isliye ghode aur gadhe bhi alag jaatiyon ke maane jaate hain. iske vipreet kutte bahut alag aakaaron mein milte hain lekin kisi bhi nar kutte aur maada kutte ke aapas mein bachche ho sakte hain jo swayam aage santaan paida karne mein saksham hain. isliye sabhi kutte, chaahe ve kisi nasal ke hi kyon na hon, jeevavaijnyaaanik drushti se ek hi jaati ke sadasya samajhe jaate hain.[1]

ek-doosare se samaanataaeain rakhane waali aisi bhinn jaatiyaaain ko, jinmein jeevavaijnyaaanikon ko yeh vishvaas ho ki ve ateet mein ek hi poorvaj se utpann hokar kram-vikaas (ivolyooshan) ke jriye samay ke saath alag shaakhon mein bant gayi hain, ek hi jeevavaijnyaaanik vansh mein daala jaata hai. masalan ghode, gadhe aur jebra alag jaatiyon ke hain lekin teenon ek hi 'ekvas' (Equus) vansh ke sadasya maane jaate hain.[2]

aadhunik kaal mein jaatiyon ki paribhaasha anya pahaluon ko jaaainchakar bhi ki jaati hain. udaaharan ke liye aanuvanshiki (jenetiks) ka prayog karke aksar jeevon ka di N A parakha jaata hai aur is aadhaar par un jeevon ko ek jaati ghoshit kiya jaata hai jinki di N A chhaap ek doosare se milti ho aur doosare jeevon se alag ho.

anukram

kaamachalaaoo /vyavahaarya /kaarya-pranaali

"jaati" shabd ke liye prayog ki jaane waali paribhaasha aur jaati ki pehchaan karne ki vishvasaneeya paddhatiyaan jeev-vigyaan sambandhi pareekshanon aur jaiv-vividhta ko aakalit ke liye aavashyak hai. prastaavit jaatiyon ke kai udaaharanon ka adhyayan aksharon ko jod kar kiya jaana chaahiye isse pehle ki yeh ek jaati maan li jaae. yeh aam taur par un vilupt jaatiyon ke liye sankshipt vargeekrut shreni hai jiski jaankaari keval jeevaashm se hi praapt karna mumkin hai.

kuchh jeev vigyaani saankhyikeeya ghatna ko praaniyon mein dekhi gayi jaatiyon ke varg ke saath paramparaagat vichaar ke viruddh dekh sakte hain. aisi sthiti mein kisi jaati ko pruthak roop se shaamil vansh ke roop mein paribhaashit kiya jaata hai jo ekal jeen pool keesanrachana karta hai. haalaanki gunadharm jaise DNA-kram aur maurfolauji ek doosare se bahut adhik sambandhit vansh ko pruthak karne mein madad ke liye prayog karne vaale is paribhaasha mein spasht seemaaen hain. haalaanki, "jaati" shabd ki sateek paribhaasha abhi bhi vivaadaaspad hai, visheshakar jeevakosh ke sambandh mein,[3] aur yeh jaati samasya kahalaati hai.[4] jeev vijnyaaaniyon ne adhik vistrut paribhaashaaen di hain, lekin prayog mein aae keval kuchh hi vikalp hain jo sambandhit jaatiyon ki visheshataaon par nirbhar karti hain.[4]

saamaanya naam aur jaatiyaaain

aamtaur par istemaal kiye jaane vaale paudhe aur pashuon ke naam ko taksa kabhi-kabhi in jaatiyon ke samaan hote hain: jaise, "sher", "vaularas," aur "Kapoor ka ped" - pratyek jaatiyon ko darshaate hain. anya maamale jinmein un naam ka prayog naheen hota: "hiran" 34 jaatiyon ke varg ko darshaata hai, jismein eld hiran, laal hiran aur baarahasingha (vaapiti) shaamil hain. baad waali do jaatiyon ko kabhi yeh vyaakhya karte hue ek hi jaati maana jaata tha ki vaigyaanik gyaan badhne ke saath-saath jaatiyon ki seemaaen kitni parivrtit ho sakti hain.

duniya mein donon ko paribhaashit karne aur unki kul sankhya ki ganana karne mein kathinaaiyon ke kaaran, yeh anumaan lagaaya jaata hai ki kaheen par bhi is prakaar ki do evam 100 million/2 se 100 million ke beech bhinn -bhinn jaatiyaaain ho sakti hain.[5]

vansh-varg mein sthaapan

aadarsh roop mein, kisi jaati ko ek aupachaarik roop se vaigyaanik naam diya jaata hai, haalaanki vyavahaar mein aisi bahut si jaatiyaaain hain (jinki keval vyaakhya hi ki gayi hai, naam naheen bataae gaye hain). kisi jaati ka naam tab rakha jaata hai, jab ise vansh-varg/vansh-kram mein rakha jaata hai. vaigyaanik drushtikon se ise parikalpana maana ja sakta hai ki jaatiyaaain doosare vansh (jeenas) ki tulana mein doosari jaatiyon ke jeenas se bahut adhik (yadi koi ho) sambandhit hoti hain. ek saamaanya jaatiyon mein shaamil hai aur/iske roop mein sabse achha gyaat vargeekaran shreni hain: jeevan, kshetr, raajya, jaati, varg, kram, parivaar, vansh aur jaati. jeenas ko iska nirdhaaran karna aparivrtya naheen; koi vargeekaran vaigyaanik baad mein mein ise bhinn (ya samaan) jeenas de sakta hai jis kaaran usaka naam bhi badal jaaega.

jaivik naamakaran mein, kisi jaati ke naam (dvipdi naam) ke do bhaag hote hain, ve laitin maane jaate hain, haalaanki kisi bhi mool bhaasha ke naam evam sthaan ya vyakti ke naam ka upayog uske liye kiya ja sakta hai. jaati naam pehle (pehla varn bade shabdon mein) ke baad doosra shabd, vishesh naam (ya vishesh upaadhi) soocheebaddh hai. udaaharan ke liye, ve jaatiyaaain jinhein lambi patti vaale cheed ke roop mein jaani jaane jaati peenas paalyoosatris hai, jiske bhoore bhediye kenis lanpas se, kauyates kenis letraans se, golden lomadi kenis oras aadi se sambandhit hain aur ve sabhi jeenas kenis se sambandhit hain (jinmein bahut si anya jaatiyaaain bhi shaamil hain). keval doosare shabd (jo jaanvaron ke liye vishisht naam kahalaata hai) mein hi naheen jaati ke naam poorn roop se dvipdi hain.

yeh dvipdi naamakaran parampara ko baad mein naamaavali ke jaivik code mein badalne ka kaam sabse pehle liyonahaart fuks dvaara prayog kiya gaya aur maanak ke roop mein kerolas lineyas dvaara 1753 mein speseej pleintaaram (uske 1758 sistem nechar, dasvein sanskaran) mein jaari kiya gaya. us samay mukhya jaivikeeya siddhaant yeh tha ki svatantr roop se pratinidhitv ki jaane waali jaatiyon ki utpatti ishvar dvaara ki gayi aur isliye unhein hi vaastavik aur aparivrtya maana jaata hai, taaki aam vansh ki parikalpana laagoo na ho.

sankshipt naam

pustakon aur lekh mein /inke sankshipt naam /rakhe jaate hain aur iske sankshipt naam ek vachan mein "sp. " aur bahuvachan mein "spp. " ko vishesh naam par rakha jaata hai: udaaharan ke liye, kenis sp. aisa aamtaur par nimnalikhit sthitiyon mein hota hai:

  • lekhakon ko poora vishvaas hai ki kuchh is vishesh jeenas se sambandhit hain lekin poori tarah se aashvast naheen hai ki vishesh roop se ve kis jaati se sambandhit hain. jeevaashmiki mein yeh vishesharoop se aam baat hai.
  • lekhak ise sankshep mein bolne ke liye "spp." ka upayog karte hain jo kisi jeenas mein kai jaatiyon ke liye laagoo hota hai, lekin use kehna naheen chaahate ki yeh us jeenas ki sabhi jaatiyon par laagoo hota hai. vaigyaaniko ke kehne ka matlab yeh hai ki jeenas mein kuchh cheejein sabhi jaatiyon par laagoo hoti hain, jis jeenas naam ka upayog ve kisi vishesh naam ke liye karte hain.

pustakon aur lekhon mein, jeenas aur jaatiyon ke naam aamtaur se itailiks (tirchhe type) mein mudrit hote hain. "sp." aur "spp." ka upayog karke inhein itailik naheen karna chaahiye.

"jaati" ko paribhaashit karne aur un vishesh jaatiyon ki pehchaan karne mein kathinaai

mukhya lekh : Species problem
greenish vaarbalar jaati chakr ki avadhaarana ko darshaate hain.

"jaati" shabd ki vyaakhya karna vismayakaari dhang se mushkil hai jo sabhi praakrutik praaniyon par laagoo hota hai aur jaatiyon ki vyaakhya kaise karein ke baare mein jeev vijnyaaaniyon par laagoo hote hain aur vaastavik jaatiyon ki pehchaan kaise karein ko jaati samasya kaha jaata hai.

adhikaansh paathyapustakon mein kisi jaati "vaastavik aur sambhaavit antar nasl praakrutik aabaadi vaale samooh" jo aise anya samooh prajanan ke taur par alag rakhe jaate hain.[6]

is paribhaasha ke vibhinn bhaagon jaise kuchh asaamaanya ya krutrim samaagam isse baahar rakhe gaye hain:

  • keval ve jo adheenata (jab jaanavar ka saamaanya samaagam saathi upalabdh naheen ho) mein ya maanav ke dvaara jaanboojhkar kiye jaate hain.
  • aise pashu jo samaagam karne mein shaareerik aur movaijnyaaanik roop se saksham hain lekin vibhinn kaaranon ki vajah se jungle mein aisa naheen karte.

uparokt aadarsh paathyapustak waali paribhaasha bahu-koshikeeya praaniyon ke liye achhi tarah kaarya karti hai lekin aisi bhi kuchh paristhitiyaan hain jahaan par inhein anupayukt thaharaaya ja sakta hai:

  • is paribhaasha ke anusaar yeh keval un jeevon par laagoo hota hai jo yaun roop se prajanan karte hain. isliye yeh ek-kosheeya jeevon aur kuchh anishik‍aat-janan sambandhi bahu-kosheeya jeevon ko laingik roop se prajanan naheen karte. shabd "faailotaaip" aksar is tarah ke jeevon ke liye laagoo hota hai.
  • jeev vigyaani aksar naheen jaan paate ki maurfiyolaujikl roop se do samaan samooh ke praani "sambhaavit" taur se antar jaateeya/sankaran karne mein saksham hain.
  • ismein bhinnata ko kaafi had tak sveekaara ja sakta hai ki jo sankaran praakrutik dashaaon ke antargat safalataapoorvak sambhav hai ya kuchh praani prajanan ke liye bhinn-bhinn yaun prajanan ka upayog karte hain.
  • kisi nirdhaarit kshetr ki jaatiyaaain jinhonne apni sabse najadeeki aabaadi mein safalataapoorvak prajanan kiya hai lekin kuchh gair-najadeeki sadasya saksham naheen rahe.
  • kuchh maamalon mein yeh shaareerik roop se asambhav hai ki jaanvaron ki ek hi jaati ke sadasyon ke saath samaagam karein. haalaanki, ye aise hi kuchh maamale dekhne mein aate hain jinmein maanav ka hastakshep sakal maurfiyolaujikl parivrtanon ka kaaran hai aur jise jaivik jaati ki avadhaarana se baahar rakha gaya hai.

kshaitijeeya jeen sthaanaantaran shabd "jaati" paribhaashit karne ko aur bhi jatil bana dete hain. prokeret samooh ke asamaan samoohon aur aur kam se kam aksar yookerets ke asamaan samoohon ke beech kshaiteejeeya jeen sthaanaantaran ke majaboot saakshya hain aur viliymasan ka tark hai ki krasteshiyans aur ekinodarm mein iske kuchh saakshya upalabdh hain.[7] "jaati" shabd ki sabhi paribhaashaaen ki kisi apne sabhi jeen apne ek ya do maata-pita se praapt hote hain us praani ke bilkul samaan hote hain, laikin aadhaarachyut jeen sthaanaantaran is anumaan ko galat thaharaata hai.

jaatiyon ki paribhaashaaen

inhein bhi dekhein: Species problem

ek sabse badhiya prashn yeh hai "jaati" shabd jiski vyaakhya jeev vigyaani dete aae hain aur is charcha ko jaatiyon ki samasya ke roop mein jaana jaata hai. daarvin ne on the orijn of speseej ke adhyaaya II mein likha.

inmein se kisi bhi paribhaasha se sabhi sabhi prakrutivaadi aspasht roop se jaante hain; fir bhi sabhi prakrutivaadi jaatiyon ke baare mein aspasht roop se jaanta hai jab ve jaatiyon ke baare mein baatein karte hain. aamtaur par is shabd mein rachana sambandhi vichitr kaarya mein agyaat kaarak shaamil hain.[8]

lekin baad mein, daarvin ne apni The Descent of Man mein yeh kehte hue apne mat mein sanshodhan kiya ki "kya maanav mein ek ya anek jaatiyaaain shaamil hain".

upayukt aadhaar par is tathya ka nirdhaaran karna ek niraashaajanak prayatn hai, jab tak "jaati" shabd sambandhi kuchh paribhaashaaen aksar sveekaari na jaaen aur paribhaasha mein koi aisa kaarak shaamil naheen ho jo sambhaavit taur se shaamil naheen kiya jaae jaise rachana sambandhi koi kaarya.[9]

vikaas ka aadhunik siddhaant "jaati" ki nai moolabhoot paribhaashaaon par nirbhar hai. daarvin se pehle, prakrutivaadiyon ne jaatiyon ko aadarsh ya saamaanya prakaar ke roop mein dekha, jiska udaaharan kisi aadarsh namoone ke saath diya ja sakta hai jismein saamaanya jaati ke samaan ve sabhi gun upalabdh hain. daarvin ke siddhaant ki ekaroopata ne dhyaan ko saadhaaran se vishesh ki taraf sthaanaantarit kar diya. bauddhik itihaasakaar luis meenaand ke anusaar,

ek baar hamaara dhyaan kisi vishesh vyakti ki taraf pun: nirdeshit kiya jaata hai, tab hamein saamaanyeekaran ka ek anya tareeka banaane ki jaroorat hogi. hamein kisi vyakti se kisi aadarsh prakaar sunishchitta mein koi dilchaspi naheen hai, ab ham us vyakti ke anya vyaktiyon ke saath sambandh sthaapit karne ki hai jinke sampark mein yeh aaya. sampark banaane vaale praaniyon ke samooh ke baare mein saamaanyeekaran karne ke liye hamein us prakaar ki bhaasha aur saar ko chhodne ki aavashyakta hoti hai jo nideshaatmak (jo yeh bataati hai ki finch kaisi honi chaahiye) hai aur aankadon aur sanbhaavyata ki bhaasha ko apnaate hain, jo bhavishyasoochak (jo nirdhaarit paristhitiyon ke antargat hamein finch ke ausat ke baare mein bataati hai ki hamein kya karna hai) hai. sambandh vargon se adhik mahatvapoorn honge; kriyaaen jo parivrtanasheel hain un uddeshyon se adhik mahatvapoorn honge; sankraman seemaaon se adhik mahatvapoorn honge; kram padaanukram se adhik mahatvapoorn honge.

yeh "jaati" ko nae drushtikon mein badal deta hai; daarvin

ne nishkarsh nikaala ki jaatiyaaain vahi hain jaise ve dikhaai padti hain: jo anya ke saath sambandh banaane vaale samooh ke naam ke liye vyaktigat roop se upayogi hain. usane likha "main is shabdaavali jaati ko dekhta hoon", "jise vyaktiyon ne apne aas-paas ki milti-julati anya cheejon ko apni suvidha ke anusaar set kiya... yeh anivaarya roop jiske kam vichitr aur adhik asthir svaroop kiye hain vibhinn prakaar ke shabdon se alag naheen hain. vividhta shabd ki tulana fir se keval antaron ke saath ki jaati hai jo manamaane dhang aur suvidha ke liye bhi laagoo hoti hai."[10]

vyaavahaarik roop se, jeev vijnyaaaniyon ne jaatiyon ko paribhaashit praaniyon ki aabaadi jinmein aanuvanshik samaanata ka star uchch hota hai ke roop mein ki hai. yeh usi jeevakosh ke anukoolan ko pratibinbit aur aanuvaanshik saamagri ka ek se doosare mein sambhaavit saadhanon ki kismon ko sthaanaantarit kar sakti hai. is prakaar ki paribhaasha mein samaanata ke sateek star ka uprayog ekapaksheeya hota hai, lekin yeh praaniyon ke liye upayog ki jaane waali sabse aam paribhaasha hai jisse alaingik (alaingik prajanan) prajanan hota hai, jaiseki kuchh paudhe aur sookshm praani.

sookshm jeev vigyaan mein kisi bhi spasht jaati ki kami ki badhya ne kuchh lekhakon ko tark dene ke liye badhya kar diya hai ki jeevaanu ka adhyayan karte samay "jaati" shabd ka upayog sahi naheen hai. iske bajaay unhonne jeen ko door-daraaj se sambandhit baikteeriya ko sambandhit baikteeriya ko sampoorn baikteeriya sambandhi kshetr ko ek jeen vaale pool ke saath svatantr roop se vichrate hue dekhte hain. fir bhi, angoothe ke niyam ki sthaapana yeh kehte hue ki gayi ki ve ek doosare se 97% se adhik samaan 16S rRNA jeen kram baikteeriya ya aarkiya ki jaanch DNA-DNA sankaran dvaara ki jaani chaahiye chaahein vah samaan jaati se sambandhit hon athva naheen.[11] is avadhaarana ka adyatan haal hi mein yeh kehte hue kiya gaya hai ki 97% ki seema bhi bahut kam thi aur use 98.7% tak badhaaya ja sakta hai.[12]

yaun roop se paida hone vaale jeevon, jahaan par jeen sambandhi saamagri ko prajanan sambandhi prakriya mein saajha kiya jaata hai, to do praaniyon ke antar janan prakriya aur donon lingon ke sankar vansh samaan sanketak ke roop mein sveekaar kiye jaate hain ki praaniyon ne samaan jaati ke sadasya ke roop mein prachur jeenon ko apnaaya hai. ek prakaar se "jaati" antar prajanan praaniyon ka ek samooh hai.

is paribhaasha ko yeh kehte hue aage badhaaya ja sakta hai ki jaati praaniyon ka vah samooh hai jo sambhaavit taur se antarjaateeya prajanan karne mein saksham hai - machhaliyon ko usi jaati mein rakha ja sakta hai bhale hi ve bhinn-bhinn jheelon mein rahati hon kyonki ve antarjaateeya prajanan kar sakti hain yadi ve kabhi bhi ek doosare ke sampark mein aayeen hon. doosari or, teen ya adhik vichitr aabaadi vaale bahut se udaaharan hain ki kya beech mein aabaadi vaale jantu doosare prakaar ki aabaadi vaale jantuon mein antar prajanan kar sakte hain lekin doosari taraf aabaadi vaale ye jantu antar prajanan karne mein saksham naheen hain. is prakaar se, yeh vishay bahas yogya hai ki ye aabaadiyaan ek ya do alag-alag jaatiyaaain banaati hain. ismein koi virodhaabhaas naheen hai ki jaatiyon ko jeen aavruttiyon ke aadhaar par paribhaashit ki jaati hain aur is prakaar se unki aspasht seemaaen hain.

nateejatan, "jaati" ki saarvabhaumik paribhaasha aavashyak roop se ekapaksheeya hai. iske bajaay, jeev vijnyaaaniyon ne bahut si paribhaashaaen di hain; jiska upayog koi jeev vigyaani ke liye paripoorn vikalp hai, vah us jeev vigyaani ke shodh ki visheshataaon par nirbhar karta hai.

taaipolaujikl jaati
jeevon ka ek samooh jismein sadasya kisi jaati ke sadasya hote hain yadi ve paryaapt dhang se kisi nishchit gunadharm ki pushti karte hain. namoonon (jaise lambi ya chhoti poonchh) mein antar aur drushyaatmak samooh jaatiyon mein antar sthaapit kareinge. jaatiyon ke nirdhaaran ke liye is vidhi ka upayog "paaramparik" tarah se kiya gaya tha jaise vikaasavaadi siddhaant mein praarambhik linias ke saath. haalaanki, ab ham jaante hain ki alag-alag fonetaaip hamesha alag jaatiyaaain (jaise:ek chaar pankh vaale drosofila ne ek do pankh waali maata se janm liya vah bhinn jaati naheen hai) naheen banaate hain. is prakaar ki jaati ke naam ko maurfospeseej kaha jaata hai.[13]
maurfolaujikl jaati
ek aabaadi ya aabaadi wala ek samooh jo maurfolaujikl tareeke se ek doosare se bhinn hote hain. udaaharan ke liye, ham murga aur battakh mein antar sthaapit kar sakte hain kyonki unki chonch ka aakaar alag-alag hota hai aur battakh ke pair jhilleedaar hote hain. isliye jaati ko itihaas abhilikhit kiye jaane se pehle achhi tarah se paribhaashit kiya gaya hai. is jaati ki avadhaarana ki atyadhik aalochna ki jaati hai kyonki haal hi mein aanuvanshik deta se pata chala hai ki aanuvanshik roop se vichitr aabaadi bahut samaan prateet ho sakti hai aur saath hi saath bade maurfiyolaujikl antar sameepavarti aabaadi mein maujood hain. baharahaal, adhikaansh gyaat jaatiyon ki vyaakhya mool roop se maurfiyolauji dhang mein ki gayi hai.
jaivik / alagaav jaati
antar prajanan waali aabaadi wala vaastavik aur sambhaavit set. uchch taksa jaise stanadhaari, machhali aur pakshi vaale jeevant udaaharan ke saath kaarya karne vaale vaigyaaniko ke liye yeh aamtaur se upayogi niroopan hai lekin un praaniyon mein adhik jatil kaarya hai jo yaun roop se prajanan naheen karte. krutrim sthitiyon mein kiye gaye prayog is cheej ko pratibinbit naheen karte ki kya hoga yadi jungle mein uske samaan prakaar ke praani se saamana hoga, tab yeh anumaan lagaana kathin hoga ki praakrutik aabaadi ke sandarbh mein aise prayog saarthak hain athva naheen.
jaivik / jaatiyon ke prajanan
do jeev jo donon lingon ke ki svaabhaavik roop se upajaaoo vansh ko praakrutik roop se janm dene mein saksham hona hai. ve jeev jo hamesha upajaaoo kam se kam ek jeev ki sankar jaati ka prajanan kar sakte hain jaiseki khachchar,hini ya F1 nar kaitolo samaan jaatiyaaain naheen maani jaati hain.
jaati ki pehchaan
saajha prajanan pranaali samaagam par aadhaarit hai. jaatiyon ki pehchaan ki avadhaarana E. H. petarasan dvaara laagoo ki gayi.
samaagam-pehchaan jaati
jeevon ka ek samooh jise bhaavi samaagam ke roop mein ek doosare ki pehchaan ke liye jaana jaata hai. uparokt vilgan jaatiyon ki avadhaarana ke aadhaar par, yeh keval un praaniyon par laagoo hota hai jo yaun roop se prajanan karte hain. alagaav jaatiyon ki avadhaarana ke vipreet, yeh poorv-samaagam prajanan par vishesh roop se keindrit hai.
vikaasamoolak / daarvin jaati
jeevon ka ek samooh jiske poorvaj ekasamaan hai; ek vansh jo samay aur sthaan ke maadhyam se anya vansh ke sambandh mein iski akhandata banaae rakhata hai. is tarah ke ek samooh ki pragati mein kuchh binduon par, kuchh sadasya anya aabaadi se alag kiye ja sakte hain aur ve up-jaati mein shaamil kiye ja sakte hain, ek aisi prakriya poorn roop se kisi nai jaati ko janm deti hai yadi alagaav (bhaugolik ya paryaavaraneeya) ko kaayam rakha jaata hai.
faailojainetik (klaadistik)[verification needed]
jeevon ka ek samooh jiske poorvaj ekasamaan hai; ek vansh jo samay aur sthaan ke maadhyam se anya vansh ke sambandh mein iski akhandata banaae rakhata hai. is tarah ke ek samooh ki pragati mein kuchh binduon par, kuchh sadasya anya aabaadi se alag kiye ja sakte hain: jab is tarah ki bhinnata paryaapt roop se spasht ho jaati hai, to aisi sthiti mein do jaatiyaaain pruthak jaati maani jaati hain. yeh vikaasavaadi jaatiyon se alag hai jismein mool jaatiyaaain shreni vibhaajan ke roop mein vilupt hoti chali jaati hain jab koi nai jaati viksit ki jaati hai, to maata aur putri do nai jaatiyon ka roop se leti hain. up-jaatiyaaain jinki pehchaan is drushtikon ke antargat naheen ho paati hai; to us aabaadi waali jaati ya to faailojainetik hai ya yeh shreni vibhaajan ke roop mein gochar naheen hai.
paryaavaraneeya jaatiyaaain
sansaadhanon ke kisi vishesh set ke liye apanaae jaane vaale jeevon ka ek set jise vaataavaran mein jeevakosh kaha jaata hai. is avadhaarana ke anusaar, aabaadi asatat fenetik jhund banaate hain jise ham jaati ke roop mein jaante hain kyonki paryaavaraneeya aur vikaasavaadi prakriyaaen jo is baat ko niyantrit karti hain ki sansaadhanon ka vitran kaise kiya jaata hai jo un jhundon ko utpann karte hain.
aanuvanshik jaatiyaaain
DNA ki samaanata par aadhaarit jeev ya aabaadi. DNA ki samaanata ki tulana karne ke liye takaneek mein DNA-DNA sankaran aur aanuvanshik fingaraprinting (ya DNA baarakoding) shaamil hain.
pratibhaasik jaatiyaaain
fenotaaips par aadhaarit.[verification needed]
sookshm jaatiyaaain
jaatiyaaain jo ardhasootran ya nishechan ke bina prajanan karte hain taaki pratyek peedhi poorv peedhi se aanuvanshik roop se ek samaan rahe. epoksis bhi dekhein.
saamanjasya waali jaatiyaaain /sansakti waali jaatiyaaain
sabse vistrut aabaadi vaale vyaktiyon mein aantarik ekta tantr ke maadhyam se praroopi saamanjasya ki sambhaavana hoti hai. yeh poorv-samaagam kriya ki anumati ke liye samaagam-pehchaan avadhaarana ka vistaar hai: is baat se koi fark naheen padta ki aabaadi ka safalataapoorvak sankaran sambhav hai, fir bhi ve vichitr sansanjan jaatiyaaain hain yadi sankaran ki maatra unke sambandhit jeen pool mein poori tarah se mishrit hone ke liye aparyaapt hai.
vikaas sambandhi mahatvapoorn ikaai (ESU)
vikaas sambandhi mahatvapoorn ikaai un jeevon ki janasankhya hai jise sanrakshan ke prayojanon se vishisht maana jaata hai. aksar kisi jaati ya vanya jeevan jaatiyaaain ke roop mein darshaae jaane vaale ESU ki bhi anek sambhaavit paribhaashaaen hain, jo jaatiyon ki paribhaasha ke hi samaan hain.

abhyaas mein, ye paribhaashaaen samaan hain aur unke beech ekamusht virodhaabhaas ki tulana mein unka maamala adhik mahatvapoorn hai. fir bhi, abhi tak prastaavit jaati ki koi bhi avadhaarana poori tarah se uddeshyapoorn naheen hai ya kisi nirnaya ke liye sahaayata liye bina sabhi maamalon mein laagoo ho sakta hai. jeevan ki jatilta ko dekhte hue, kuchh ka kehna hai ki is tarah ke ek uddeshya ki paribhaasha sabhi prakaar ki sambhaavnaaon mein asambhav hai aur jeev vaigyaaniko ko sabse adhik vyaavahaarik paribhaasha ka nirdhaaran karna chaahiye.

adhikaansh reedh vihin praaniyon mein yeh sabhi jaivik jaatiyon ki avadhaarana (BSC) hai aur faailojainetik jaati ki avadhaaran (PSC) mein kaafi had (ya vibhinn prayojanon ke liye) tak kam hai. kai BSC up-jaatiyon ko PSC ke antargat jaati maana jaata hai; BSC aur PSC ke beech antar ka nirdhaaran kiya ja sakta hai kyonki BSC jaati ko spasht vikaasavaadi itihaas ke parinaamasvaroop jaati ko paribhaashit karta hai, jabki PSC kisi jaati ko spasht vikaasavaadi sambhaavana ke parinaamasvaroop paribhaashit karta hai. is prakaar se, PSC jaatiyon ko "banaaya" gaya jaise hi vikaasavaadi vansh ko alag kiya jaana shuroo hua, jabki BSC jaati ne keval tabhi niklana shuroo kiya jab unka vansh ka alagaav poorn ho gaya. tadanusaar, PSC banaam BSC ke aadhaar par vaikalpik vargeekaran ke beech paryaapt vivaad sambhav hai kyonki unke taksa ke vyavahaar ke aadhaar par ve bilkul bhinn hain, use baad vaale model (jaise madhumakkhiyon ke up-jaatiyaaain) ke antargat up-jaatiyaaain maanya hongi.

jeevan ke samarthan waali jaatiyaaain: kai jaatiyaaain paryaavaran ke anukoolan ke prati bilkul vichitr hoti hain, kyonki ve kuchh sthitiyon ke antargat paidaavaar ya prajanan karne mein saksham hain jaise sookha, banjar, baadh, mitti ki vishaaktata, mitti ki lavanata jinmein se bahut se bhojan, saamagriyaan pradaan karte hain aur maanav ko shakti pradaan karne vaale pashudhan aur anya jaanvaron manushya ke liye sambhaavit roop se laabhakaari maane jaate hain aur ye jeevan sahaayak jaatiyon ke roop mein jaani jaati hain. jaiseki unamein paarasparik mukhya jaatiyaaain shaamil hain kyonki inke paas bhoo-aakrutiyon ki akhandata ki mukhya kunji hoti hai jismein donon praaniyon ke baayodeta aur maanav samudaaya shaamil hain. donon paaristhitiki aur saamaajik aarthik jaatiyaaain jeevan ke liye sahaayak jaatiyaaain hain.

jaatiyon ki sankhya

anadekhi aur dekhi jaatiyon ki khoj

jaatiyon ke vargeekaran ke saath poorvollekhit samasyaaon ko dhyaan mein rakhate hue nimnalikhit sankhya keval naam maatr ka maargadarshan hai. 2007 mein, ve nimnaanusaar the:[14]

jaatiyon ki kul sankhya (anumaanit): 7-100 million (gyaat aur agyaat) sahit:

yookraayete jaatiyon mein se humne keval inki pehchaan hi kar sake[14]:

  • 1.6 million sahit:
    • 297326 paudhon sahit:
      • 15000 kaai,
      • farns aur 13,025 baarahamaasi,
      • 980 gaayanosparm hai,
      • 258650 ainjeeosparm,
        • 199350 dvibeeji,
        • 59,300 monokotaailedan,
      • 9671 laal aur hare shaivaal,
    • 28,849 kavak aur anya pashu vimukt sahit:
    • 1250000 jaanavar, sahit:

vartamaan mein, global teksonomi inishiyetiv, yooropiyn distreebyooted Institute of teksonomi aur sensas of marine life (baad wala keval samudri jeevon ke liye) teksonomi sudhaar ka prayaas kar rahe hain aur pehle se agyaat jaatiyon ko teksonomi system ko amal mein la rahe hain.[17] is satya ke kaaran ki ham jeev mandal mein keval kuchh praaniyon ko hi jaante hain, fir bhi hamein apne paryaavaran ke kaamkaaj ki poori samajh naheen hai. professor James melet ke anusaar ham nai jaatiyon ki khoj ke baavajood maamalon ko bad se badatar banaate ja rahe hain aur ham in jaatiyon ko abhootapoorv gati ke saath samaapt karte ja rahe hain.[18] iska matlab yeh bhi hai ki kisi nai jaati ko praapt karne se pehle iska adhyayan aur vargeekaran kiya jaana chaahiye, choonki ho sakta hai ki vah pehle se hi vilupt ho chuki ho.

jaivik vargeekaran mein mahatva

jaatiyon ki dhaarana ka lamba itihaas hai. kai kaaranon se yeh vargeekaran ke sabse mahatvapoorn staron mein se ek hai:

  • yeh aksar uske samaroop hai jise log bhinn prakaar ke jeev ke roop mein maanate hain - kutta alag jaati hai aur billi alag.
  • yeh maanak naamakaran dvipd naam paddhati (ya trinaam naam paddhati) hai jiske dvaara vaigyaanik visheshataur se jantuon ko darshaate hain.
  • yeh sabse shaanadaar vargeekaran ka star hai jise adhik ya kam antarveshan sambhav naheen hai.

varshon ke prayog ke baad, jeev vigyaan ki avadhaarana aur sambandhit kshetr ke mejabaan ke roop mein pramukh rahi hai lekin abhi tak ise poorn roop se paribhaashit naheen ki gayi hai.

jaati sthiti ke nirdhaaran ka aashay

kisi vishesh jaati ke naamakaran ke jeevon ko us samooh ke jeevon ke vikaasavaadi sambandh aur aur unki vividhta ke baare mein parikalpana maani jaani chaahiye. agrim jaankaari haath mein aate hi parikalpana ki pushti ya usaka khandan kiya ja sakta hai. kabhi-kabhi, khaaskar jab ateet mein sanchaar bahut adhik mushkil tha, to alagaav par kaarya karne vaale vargeekaran vaigyaaniko ne alag-alag jantuon ko alag-alag naam diye jinki pehchaan baad mein ek samaan jaati ke roop mein ki gayi. jab do naam waali jaati ki khoj ek jaati ke roop mein ki gayi, to puraani jaati ka naam aamtaur se kaayam rakha gaya aur nai jaati ke naam ko vah naam de diya gaya, ek aisi prakriya jo ekatreekaran ke roop mein paryaayavaacheekaran ya bolachaal ki prakriya kahalaati hai. teksaun ko ek se adhik mein vibhaajit karne mein aamtaur se naya wala vibhaajan teksauns kahalaata hai. vargeekaran vaigyaaniko ko aamtaur se unke sahapaathiyon dvaara unhein "lanpar" ya "splitr" kaha jaata hai, jo jantuon (lanpar aur splitr dekhein) ke beech pahachaane jaane vaale antar par unke vyaktigat drushtikon aur samaanataaon par nirbhar karta hai.

paramparaagat roop se, shodhakarta sanrachanaatmak antaron ke avlokan aur is avlokan par ki kya bhinn aabaadi mein jaatiyon mein atar ke liye unka antar prajanan safalataapoorvak kiya gaya athva naheen, par bharosa karte hain; donon shareer rachana aur prajanan vyavahaar donon hi abhi bhi jaatiyon ki sthiti bataane ke liye mahatvapoorn hain. pichhle kuchh dashakon mein, sookshmajeevavijnyaaani anusandhaan takaneek mein kraanti (aur abhi bhi chal rahi hai) ke parinaamasvaroop jaise DNA vishleshan se jaatiyon ke beech antar aur samaanataaon ke baare mein athaah gyaan upalabdh ho gaya hai. kai aabaadiyaan jo pehle pruthak jaatiyon ke roop mein maani jaati theen ko ab ek teksaunamaana jaata hai aur poorv samooheekrut aabaadi ko vibhaajit kiya gaya hai. koi vargeekaran star (jaati, jeenas, parivaar aadi) ka paryaayavaacheekaran ya vibhaajit kiya ja sakta hai aur uchch teksonomik star par ye sanshodhan abhi bhi bahut athaah hain.

vargeekaran ke drushtikon se, jaati mein samoohon ko jaati ki tulana mein teksaun vargeekaran ke roop mein paribhaashit kiya ja sakta hai. praaneevijnyaaan mein keval up-jaatiyon ka upayog kiya jaata hai jabki vanaspati vigyaan mein vividhta, up-vividhta aur svaroop ka upayog kiya gaya hai. sanrakshan jeev vigyaan mein, vikaasavaadi mahatvapoorn ikaai (ESU) ka upayog kiya jaata hai jise jaati ya adhik chhoti vichitr aabaadi vaale khand ke roop mein paribhaashit kiya ja sakta hai.

jaatiyon ke aitihaasik vikaas ki avadhaarana

linias jaatiyon ki sthirta mein vishvaas karte the.

vigyaan ke praarambhik kaarya mein, jaati keval alag-alag praani hote the jo apne samaan ya lagbhag samaan praaniyon ke samooh ka pratinidhitv karte the. us samay un par inke alaava koi anya sambandh laagoo naheen hote the. arastoo ne jeenas aur jaati shabd ka upayog jaatigt ya vishesh vargon ke liye kiya. arastoo aur anya poorv-daarviniyn vaigyaaniko ne jaatiyon ko "saar" jaise raasaayanik tatvon ke roop mein vishesh aur aparivrtaneeya maana. jab aaranbhik prekshakon ne jeevon ke liye sangathan ko pranaali ke roop mein viksit karna chaaloo kiya, to unhonne pehle se pruthak ko is sthaan par rakhana aarambh kar diya. inmein se kai praarambhik chitran yojanaaon ko ab sanaki naheen maana jaaega aur inmein samaraktata ke aadhaar par rang (peele foolon vaale sabhi paudhe) ya vyavahaar (saanp, bichhoo aur kuchh kaatne waali cheentiyaan) shaamil hain.

18 veen sadi mein sveedish vaigyaanik kairolas linias ne prajanan angon ke anusaar jeevon ka vargeekaran kiya. haalaanki jeevon ke vargeekaran ke unke prakaar ne samaanata ke anusaar jeevon ka vargeekaran kiya, lekin unhonne samaan jaatiyon ke beech sambandh ke baare mein koi daava naheen kiya.. us samay, vyaapak roop se abhi bhi yeh vishvaas kiya jaata tha ki jaatiyon ke madhya koi bhi maana hai ki vahaaain jaivik jaatiyon ke beech koi bhi jaivik sambandh naheen tha, bhale hi ve kitne hi samaan dikhaai kyon na dete hon. is drushtikon ne bhi ek prakaar ke aadarshavaad ka sujhaav diya: yeh dhaarana ki maujooda sabhi jaatiyaaain ek "aadarsh svaroop" hai. haalaanki vahaan par sabhi jeevon ke beech hamesha hi matabhed (kabhi-kabhi bahut kam) hain, to bhi liniys ne aise antar ko samasyaapoorn maana. unhonne alag-alag jeevon ki pehchaan karne ka prayaas kiya jo jaatiyon ka anukaraneeya tha aur anya gair-anukaraneeya jeevon asaamaanya aur apoorn maana.

19 veen sadi tak adhikaansh prakrutivaadi samajh gaye the ki jaati samay samay par badal sakti hain aur yeh ki gruh ke itihaas ne unamein mukhya parivrtanon ke liye paryaapt samay diya tha. jeen-baipatist laimaark ne Zoological Philosophy mein srushti-rachana-siddhaant ke viruddh pehla taarkik vichaar diya. jaatiyaaain samay ke saath-saath kaise badal sakti hai ke nirdhaaran ke baare mein nai praathamikta thi. laimaark ne sujhaav diya ki jeev kisi praapt gun ko apne aane vaale vansh mein pahuncha sakta hai jaise jiraaf ki lambi gardan oonche pedon (bhali-bhaanti gyaat aur sabse saral udaaharan, haalaanki lainamaark ke chaudaai aur sookshmata ke sambandh mein nyaayasangat naheen hai) ki pattiyon tak pahunchana jiraaf ki peedhi ka gun tha. haalaanki, 1860 mein Charles daarvin ki praakrutik chayan vichaar ki sveekruti ke saath, lainamaark ke lakshya-unmukh vikaas ke drushtikon jise teliyolaujikl prakriya ke roop mein bhi jaana jaata hai ko prabhaavaheen kar diya gaya tha. pashchajanan sambandhi prakriyaaen jaise mithaaileshan ke aas-paas praapt visheshataaon ke vanshaanukram mein haal hi ki roochi jo DNA kram ko prabhaavit naheen karti, lekin viraasateeya tareeke se abhivyakti ko badla ja sakta hai. is prakaar, niyo-laimaarkavaad, jaiseki kabhi-kabhi iske baare mein baat bhi hui hain ki praakrutik chayan ke saath vikaas ka siddhaant koi chunauti naheen hai.

Charles daarvin aur alfred veles vah vichaar diya jiska paalan aaj bhi vaigyaanik vikaas ke siddhaant ka sabse shaktishaali aur sammohak roop mein karte hain. daarvin ne tark diya ki yeh shaamil aabaadi hi thi koi praani maatr naheen. unka tark liniys ki kattarpanthi dhaara ke pariprekshya ki tulana mein adhik vishvasaneeya hai:jaati ki vyaakhya aadarsh shabd (aadarsh pratinidhi aur khaarij vichlan ki talaash mein) ke roop mein karne ki bajaay, daarvin ne jeevon ke beech antar ko praakrutik maana. unhonne aage tark diya ki samasyaagrastata se door durlabh jaati ke astitv ke liye vaastav mein usaka spashteekaran kiya.

daarvin ke kaam ne Thomas maalthasake antardrushti ko apni taraf aakarshit kiya ki jaivik janasankhya ki vruddhi dar paryaavaran mein sansaadhanon ki vruddhi dar se hamesha aage rahegi jaiseki bhojan ki aapoorti. iske parinaamasvaroop, daarvin ne tark diya ki aabaadi ke sabhi jeev nirvaah aur prajanan karne mein saksham naheen honge. unke dvaara kiye jaane vaale kaarya ausatan lekin unamein antar hoga - haalaanki ve use thoda bahut paryaavaran ke anukool banaaenge. agar ye gunon vaale antar Patrick rahe to jeevit rahane vaalon ka vansh unhein dhaaran kar lega. is prakaar, kai peedhiyon se anukooli vividhtaaen aabaadi mein jama ho jaaengi, jabki pratikool gun samaapt ho jaaenge.

is baat par bal diya jaana chaahiye ki kya paryaavaran mein koi antar anukooli hai ya gair anukooli: bhinn-bhinn paryaavaran alag alag gunon ka paksh lete hain. kyonki paryaavaran hi kaaragar dhang se is baat ka chayan karta hai ki kis praani ko prajanan ke liye jeevit rahana hai aur vah paryaavaran (astitv ke liye "ladaai") hi hai jo is baat ka nirdhaaran karte hai ki kaunase gun aage jaane chaahiye. yeh praakrutik chayan ke dvaara vikaas ka siddhaant hai. is model mein, ek jiraaf ki gardan ki lanbaai ki vyaakhya sthiti ke anusaar ki jaaegi ki lambi gardan vaale proto-jiraaf ne vishesh prajananakaari visheshaataaon ko chhoti gardan vaale jiraaf se praapt kiya kai peedhiyon se, poori aabaadi lambi gardan vaale pashuon ki jaati ki hogi.

1859 mein, jab daarvin ne praakrutik chayan ka apna siddhaant prakaashit kiya, to us samay vanshaanukram ke vyaktigat gunon vaale tantr ka gyaan naheen tha. haalaanki daarvin ne gun ke vanshaanukram (peingajenaisis) se praapt hone ke baare mein kuchh kalpanaaen ki, lekin usana siddhaant keval is sachchaai par aadhaarit tha ki vanshaanukram gun maujood hote hain aur ve parivrtanasheen (jo unke nishpaadan ko adhik ullekhaneeya banaate hain) hote hain. haalaanki gregar meindal aanuvanshiki par shodh-patra ko usaki visheshataaon ki pehchaan kiye bina hi 1866 mein prakaashit kiya gaya tha. is par 1900 tak koi kaarya naheen kiya gaya jab unke kaarya ki pun: khoj hyoogo di veraais, kaarl kaurens aur airik vaun semaark dvaara tab ki gayi jab unhein is baat ka aabhaas hua ki daarvin ke siddhaant mein "vanshaanukram gun" jeen hain.

praakrutik chayan ke maadhyam se vikaas ki jaatiyon ke vargeekaran mein jaatiyon ki charcha ke liye do mahatvapoorn maanyataaen hai - ve parinaam lineyas ki teksonomi ke paksh mein anumaanon ko moolabhoot roop se chunauti deti hain. sabse pehle isse yeh pata chala ki jaatiyaaain keval samaan naheen hain balki ve vaastav mein sambandhit bhi ho sakti hai. daarvin ke kuchh chhaatron ka tark hai ki sabhi jaatiyaaain aam poorvaj ki vanshaj hain. doosra, yeh maana jaata hai ki "jaati" sajaateeya, sthir, sthaayi cheejein naheen hai; jaati ke sadasya bilkul bhinn hain aur bahut samay pehle jaatiyon mein parivartan hua hai. is baat se pata chalta hai ki jaatiyon ki koi vishesh seema kshetr naheen hai lekin lagaataar badalti jeen-aavruttiyon ke saankhyikeeya prabhaav padte hain. abhi bhi koi vyakti liniys ke vargeekaran ka upayog paudhon aur jaanvaron ki pehchaan ke liye kar sakta hai, lekin koi bhi vyakti ab jaatiyon ke svatantr aur aparivrtaneeya roop ke baare mein soch bhi naheen sakta.

Patrick vansh se kisi nai jaati mein vikaas hona speshiyeshan kahalaata hai. iski vanshaj jaati se poorvaj jaati ka nirdhaaran koi spasht vansh wala seemaankan naheen hai.

haalaanki jaatiyon ke vartamaan vaigyaanik gyaan se yeh pata chala hai ki sabhi maamalon mein vibhinn jaatiyon ke beech antar sthaapit karne ke liye koi thos aur vyaapak tareeka naheen hai, taaki jeev vigyaani is vichaar ke sanchaalan ko jaari rakhane ke liye thos tareekon ki talaash jaari rakhein. jaati ke baare mein sabse lokapriya jaivik paribhaasha mein se ek prajanan alagaav ke sandarbh mein hai, agar do praani donon lingon ke sankar vansh ka prajanan karne mein saksham naheen hote, to ve bhinn-bhinn jaatiyon ke hote hain. is paribhaasha mein sahaj gyaan yukt jaatiyon ki seemaaen hain, lekin yeh apoorn hain. udaaharan ke liye un jaati ke baare mein kuchh naheen kehna hai jo alaingik tareeke se prajanan karte hain aur use vilupt hoti ja raheen jaatiyon par laagoo karna bada mushkil hai. iske alaava, jaatiyon ke beech ki seemaaen aksar aspasht hoti hain: aise kai udaaharan hain jahaan par kisi vishesh aabaadi ke sadasya doosari aabaadi vaale praaniyon ke saadh jananaksham sankar vansh ka prajanan karte hain aur doosari aabaadi ke sadasya teesari aabaadi vaale praaniyon ke saadh upajaaoo sankar vansh ka prajanan kar sakte hain lekin pehli aur teesari aabaadi vaale sadasya upajaaoo sankar ka prajanan naheen kar sakte ya keval maata pita se hi upajaaoo vansh ko janm sambhav hai. nateejatan, kuchh log jaati ki is paribhaasha ko asveekaar karte hain.

richrd daakins do praaniyon ki vyaakhya sajaateeyata ke roop mein karte hain aur yadi unke kromosoms ki sankhya samaan hoti hai aur pratyek kromosomam ke liye donon praaniyon mein samaan sankhya mein gunasootr hote hain (The Blind Watchmaker, p. 118). haalaanki, adhiktar sabhi vargeekaran vaigyaanik is baate se asahamat honge.[krupaya uddharan jodein] udaaharan ke liye, kai ubhayacharon mein, vishesh roop se New Zealand mein, liyopelma meindhakon ke jeenom mein "mool" jeenom hote hain jo bilkul bhinn naheen hote aur gaun gunasootr hote hain jo bahut se sanyojanon mein maujood hain. haalaanki, aabaadi ke gunasootron ki sankhya mein atyadhik antar paaya jaata hai, fir bhi ye safalataapoorvak antar prajanan kar sakte hain aur ek ekal vikaasakaari ikaai banaate hain. paudhon mein, pauleeplaaidi antar prajanan par kuchh rokathaamon wala atyadhik saamaanya sthaan hai; kyonki praaniyon ke gunasootron ke set sam sankhya se visankramit kiye jaate hain, jo vartamaan gunasootron ke set ki vaastavik sankhya par nirbhar karta hai jahaan vahi vikaasakaari ikaai ke kuchh praani kuchh anya ke saath antar prajanan kar sakte hain aur kuchh naheen aur usamein poori aabaadi ko visheshataur se ek saamaanya jeen pool banaane ke roop mein joda gaya hai.

jaatiyon ka vargeekaran vishesh taur se takaneeki pragati se prabhaavit ho raha hai jiski anumati shodhakartaaon ne unke sambandh ko aanvik nishaan ke aadhaar par, krood rakt plaajma vaale teevr pramaanon ko 20veen shataabdi ke madhya mein Charles sible ke ground-breking DNA-DNA sankaran adhyayan, 1970 mein, ki tulana mein DNA takaneek anukraman ko janm diya. in takaneekon ke parinaamasvaroop uchch teksonomik vargon (jaise faaila aur varg) mein kraantikaari parivartan aaya, jisse faailojenetik ped (ise dekhein bhi: aanavik faailojeni) ki bahut si shaakhaaon ki punarvyavastha vaale parinaam praapt hue. neeche jainara ke teksonomik vargon ke liye, parinaam ek saath milaae gaye; aanvik star par vikaasavaadi parivartan ki gati ko dheema kiya gaya, jisse keval prajanan alagaav ke upayukt avadhi ke baad hi spasht antar praapt hue. DNA-DNA sankaran ke parinaamon se gumaraah karne vaale parinaam praapt hue, to pomeraain skooaa - great skooaa ki ghatna ek prasiddh udaaharan ban gayi. kachhue ko aanavik star par anya sareesrup ki gati ke maatr aathavein bhaag ke saath viksit hone ke liye nirdhaarit kiya gaya aur elbaatraas mein aanavik vikaas ki dar storm-petrals ki tulana mein lagbhag aadhi hi pai jaati hai. aajkal aprachalit sankaran takaneek upalabdh hai aur anukram ki tulana ke liye aur adhik vishvasaneeya kampyooteshanal drushtikon dvaara badli jaati hai. aanvik vargeekaran seedhe vikaasavaadi prakriyaaon par aadhaarit naheen hai, balki in prakriyaaon dvaara samagr parivartan kiya jaata hai. ve prakriyaaen jo peedhi aur vividhta vaale rakharakhaav ka pratinidhitv karti hain jaise parivartan, badlaav ki prakriya aur chayan samaroop (aanavik ghadi bhi dekhein) naheen hain. DNA baad vaale parinaam par peedhiyon ke dauraan DNA kram mein parivartan ki bajaay svaabhaavik chayan ka keval atyadhik virl pratyaksh lakshya hai; udaaharan ke liye, mook paaragaman-pratisthaapan sanyojan DNA anukram ke galanaank bindu ko badal dega, lekin enakod kiye proteen ke anukram ko naheen aur udaaharan ke liye jahaan par sookshmajeevon ke liye, parivartan swayam mein apni fitness mein parivartan ke baare mein vichaar karte hain.

inhein bhi dekhein

nots aur sandarbh

  1. ↑ A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology, Sahotra Sarkar, Anya Plutynski, John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4443-3785-3, ... According to interbreeding concepts, species are groups of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Interbreeding species are distinct gene pools, bound and maintained by sexual reproduction ...
  2. ↑ The Evolution and Extinction of the Dinosaurs, David E. Fastovsky, David B. Weishampel, pp. 68, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0-521-81172-9, ... Biological classification ... The categories that he established - now a memorized mantra - are (in order of decreasing size), kingdom, phylum, class, order family, genus, species ...
  3. ↑ Fraser C, Alm EJ, Polz MF, Spratt BG, Hanage WP (February 2009). "The bacterial species challenge: making sense of genetic and ecological diversity". Science (journal) 323 (5915): 741–6. doi:10.1126/science.1159388. PMID 19197054.
  4. ↑ a aa de Queiroz K (May 2005). "Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 Suppl 1: 6600–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502030102. PMC 1131873. PMID 15851674. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15851674.
  5. ↑ Just How Many Species Are There, Anyway?, 2003-05-26, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/05/030526103731.htm, abhigman tithi: 2008-01-15
  6. ↑ de Queiroz K (2005). "Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 Suppl 1: 6600–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502030102. PMID 15851674. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15851674.
  7. ↑ David I. Williamson (2003). The Origins of Larvae. Kluwer. aai॰aऍsa॰abee॰aऍna॰ 1-4020-1514-3.
  8. ↑ Darwin 1859, prushth [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=F373&pageseq=59
  9. ↑ Darwin 1871, prushth [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&keywords=definition+species+of&pageseq=241
  10. ↑ Louis menand (2001) the maitaafijikl club New York: feraar, straas aur girauks 123-124.
  11. ↑ Stackebrandt E, Goebel BM (1994). "Taxonomic note: a place for DNA-DNA reassociation and 16S rRNA sequence analysis in the present species definition in bacteriology". Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44: 846–9.
  12. ↑ Stackebrandt E, Ebers J (2006). "Taxonomic parameters revisited: tarnished gold standards". Microbiol. Today 33: 152–5.
  13. ↑ Michael Ruse (August 1969). "Definitions of Species in Biology". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 20 (2): 97–119. http://www.jstor.org/stable/686173.
  14. ↑ a aa vartamaan parinaam: pruthvi par maujood jaatiyon ki sankhya
  15. ↑ Sogin ML, Morrison HG, Huber JA, et al. (August 2006). "Microbial diversity in the deep sea and the underexplored "rare biosphere"". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (32): 12115–20. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605127103. PMC 1524930. PMID 16880384. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16880384. Cheung L (Monday, 31 July 200). "Thousands of microbes in one gulp". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5232928.stm.
  16. ↑ David L. Hawksworth (2001). "The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1•a5 million species estimate revisited". Mycological Research 105: 1422–1432. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=95069.
  17. ↑ samudri jeevan ki janaganana
  18. ↑ nai jaatiyon ki khoj aur uchch dar ke saath unki tabaahi

baahari link

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jaati (jeevavijnyaaan) ko vikshanari,
ek mukt shabdakosh mein dekhein.
vikispeesheej par soochana milegi, Species ke vishay mein
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